Introduction

The United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development says, "Sustainable development meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (Hart 1995, 4). From this statement there has evolved a rich discussion of how the terms "sustainable" and "development" fit together. The introduction of the concept "sustainable" to long-held development approaches raises questions about the ecological capacity of the planet we inhabit. It also raises questions about what is just and fair when development takes place. In fact, the issue of sustainability even raises questions regarding the real meaning of the word "growth" in the context of development. One common element within this discussion is the concept that sustainable development addresses economic, environmental and social issues. Some individuals and organizations want to link the issues of economy, environment and society while others want to bring about balance among the three. Still others want to ensure that we understand that it is ecology that sets the limits for development. Some organizations and individuals believe sustainability is an issue best resolved at the grassroots level of a community through inclusion of all residents. Still others want to ensure that the key stakeholders of a community are the decision makers while others want the responsibility for decisions to be spread between grassroots groups and key stakeholders.

The sustainability discussion has increased to the point that Web sites are now established not only by organizations who have formed institutes or centers to deal with the issue, but also by public agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency, the National Association of Counties and U.S. Conference of Mayors and the Department of Energy. President Clinton even established the President’s Council on Sustainable Development to keep the executive office informed on the progress of a sustainable development philosophy. Some of these organizations focus on creating new indicators for assessing the nation's well-being, others on creating sustainable visions, and numerous others on environmental awareness and change. Each is contributing substantially to the rich discussion and various initiatives begun at the local level and throughout the world to enhance sustainable communities.

The discussion of sustainable development also brings with it confusion, particularly for the person just discovering the topic. Unlike other development concepts, sustainable development has yet to emerge with a unified consensus regarding its nature. For example, when people attach the word "economic" to the word "development," they are usually talking about the attraction, creation, retention and expansion of business. However, the actual purposes and results of these four activities of the economic development profession are questioned by the sustainable development movement. This challenge from sustainable development advocates at times seems to focus on how to bring economic activity into a more collaborative effort with the environmental health of the local community and world. At other times sustainable development advocates seem to be asking for initiatives that replace current economic practices in favor of environmental initiatives that save the world exactly as it is for future generations. Also, at times, the sustainable development discussion seems to be about bringing a fairer reward to those individuals who have not benefited from the economic vitality of a community, particularly the people of developing nations whose resources are consumed with every increasing demand by prosperous developed nations.

The various uses of the term "sustainable development" add to the confusion. At times words and phases such as "sustainability," "sustainable communities" and "smart growth" seem to be interchangeable, but they may not refer to the same concept. Technical terms play a role in the confusion. People entering the discussion must learn such environmental terms as "ecological footprint," "carrying capacity" and "biodiversity," all of which sustainability advocates take for granted. In addition, the introduction of the word "sustainable" suggests that people weren’t always trying to be responsible stewards looking toward the future. What does it mean, for example, to create a sustainable building? Weren’t buildings always created to be sustainable?

An exploration of the literature regarding sustainable development will show numerous examples indicating successful individual projects and responses promoting sustainable practices. Many of these examples are collected and awards given under the Best Practices program of The United Nations Centre for Human Settlements and administered by The Together Foundation (http://www.bestpractices.org/). If sustainable development is to be effective it must involve and often begin with individuals and specific project initiatives. However, there are also emerging efforts from geographically defined communities to make sustainable development a collaborative commitment to establish a new community ethos. Max Stackhouse in his book Ethics and The Urban Ethos talks about the concept of ethos. Ethos,, Stackhouse tells us, is "the subtle web of values, meanings, purposes, expectations, obligations and legitimations that constitutes the operating norms of a culture in relationship to a social entity" (Stackhouse 1972, 5). Sustainable development brings with it a particular ethos that challenges, or at least requires clarification of, a long accepted American understanding of human destiny.

The question we are concerned with in this document is whether sustainable development can be a community-wide priority and behavior which expands, and perhaps even at times replaces, existing priorities and behaviors. To accomplish such a task requires, it seems, the integration of a diverse leadership base guiding the discovery of a new community ethos. Currently a great deal of the leadership for sustainable practices is housed within the environmental organizations of a community. Often these organizations point toward individual efforts as the key to sustainable practices. If, however, sustainability is to become the foundation of a shared community ethos we must find methods to build these individual efforts into collective behavior. This requires the inclusion of economic and social professionals and organizations in the adoption of an ethos based on sustainability. Is it possible, for example, to include development professionals, particularly economic development professionals, in these discussions? Hopefully, the materials contained in this document will help both those entering the sustainability discussion and those with a rich history of implementing sustainable activities to consider ways traditional development leadership can be integrated into current sustainable development efforts. Included in our effort to encourage this integration is a history of the sustainable development concept, a review and discussion regarding the actual definition of sustainability, a search and explanation regarding various organizations involved in the sustainability question, a comparison of sustainable development to traditional development philosophy, and a suggestion for creating a local sustainable development community process.

Glossary of Terms

The discussion surrounding sustainability involves some economic and environmental terms that are often taken for granted by writers of sustainable development literature. These terms are often ideas that are frequently encountered in an individual’s formal education. The problem is that these terms do not appear in the daily conversation of most people. A refresher of these terms will help the reader clearly understand the thoughts presented. The following operational definitions of terms is presented so the reader can quickly recognize the concept being expressed within sustainable development literature:

• Capital

• Carrying Capacity

• Ecological Footprint

• Ecology

• Ecosystem

• Equity

The History of the Sustainable Development Movement

"In our every deliberation, we must consider the impact of our decisions on the next seven generations."

-Law of the Iroquois

Although the discourse surrounding sustainability has only come to the forefront of public awareness within the past few decades, the concept of preserving society for future generations has been voiced by humans throughout history. What culture has not been concerned with its continuation into the distant future and with the survival of future generations? While it is true that the world is a very different place than it was when the Iroquois recognized the impact of decisions made in the present on generations in the future, this sentiment still hits a responsive chord today among communities and cultures throughout the world. What is different, and what has evolved during the past few decades, is a transition from our belief that growth and technology will solve social and environmental problems, to a recognition that the natural world has limits and that growth must occur within these limits to be sustainable.

"Sustainable" and "Development:" Origins of the Terms

The term "sustainable" has become almost ubiquitous, but it is not well understood. "Sustainable agriculture," "sustainable forestry," "sustainable communities," "sustainable land use" are among terms that have emerged into common vocabulary in the past decade. In some senses this is unfortunate because they have served to weaken, through overuse and lack of clarity, a very powerful concept that has begun and will continue increasingly to reshape our lives as citizens of the world now and into the future.

The concept of "sustainability" originated with European foresters during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It came about in response to concerns about rapid deforestation resulting from the intense consumer demand for wood and wood products. Wood was a critical element of the economy in Europe at that time. It was used to heat homes, provide lumber for residential and business construction, and create value-added products such as furniture. The problem of resource depletion arose because the harvesting method of choice, clear cutting, was economically advantageous for the forester but environmentally harmful to the forest. Clear cutting involved cutting down all of the trees in a forest tract, harvesting the valuable wood and leaving the rest. The trees that grew back were not the same quality as those that had been cut down, reducing the value and usefulness of the resource. In response to this problem, the forest industry, especially foresters in Germany, developed the concept of scientific, sustainable forestry. They reasoned that if sufficient numbers of trees were planted each year to replace those cut, and if the entire forest was monitored scientifically to ensure that this replacement was keeping pace with harvesting, then the forest would be sustainable. Thus the first definition of sustainable was put into operation. In this context it meant that as a resource such as timber is depleted, it could always be replaced by growing additional amounts of the same resource, leading to sustainability (Davis n.d., 1).

The term "development" has a much different history, especially as viewed in the context of sustainable development. During the Cold War the capitalistic ideology of the United States was seriously challenged in developing nations by communist political ideology, which promised an improved standard of living for those in poverty. Communist ideology held that if communism were embraced, the disenfranchised would rise up in revolution and overcome the ruling classes, redistributing wealth for the benefit of the poor. The ideology held that this political and economic transformation would result in the well-being of all (Davis n.d., 1). This ideology was embraced by populations in the Third World who were facing the daily struggle of poverty and starvation.

In response, the ideology of economic development was developed and promoted by Walter Rostow, a prominent American economist and government official. Rostow challenged the capitalistic countries to accept their responsibility to assist Third World nations to grow and improve economically. He believed that capitalism was the best answer for the economic well-being of developing countries. If enough money was provided in the form of foreign aid and assistance to these nations, their economies would grow to equal those of western Europe, the United States and Japan. The standard of living of all residents would be improved. The "development" part of sustainable development means, in this context, that the economies of Third World countries would be comparable to those of developed nations, resulting in the elimination of poverty and creation of a world more equitable for all humans (Davis n.d., 1 -2).

Impact of the Industrial Revolution

From the late eighteenth century on, the pervasive impact of the industrial revolution began to dictate the political, social and economic direction and priorities not only of the United States but other industrialized nations as well. Rather than considering the impacts of decisions on generations far into the future, industrialized nations became more immediate in scope and were driven often by short-term gain. Growth and the accumulation of wealth became synonymous with improvement and advancement. People began to believe that development had no limits and that technological advances would be capable of solving all of society’s ills.

It was not until the upheaval of the 1960s that the industrial-age wisdom of unlimited growth and accumulation began to be questioned and the environmental and social impacts of unbridled growth were recognized. At the same time, the disparity between the rich and the poor was growing, causing some to question the ability of unqualified growth to improve the well-being of all citizens. The rising tide was not lifting all boats equally.

The Population Bomb

Perhaps the one issue that helped to turn public opinion to a recognition of natural limits to sustained growth was the "population explosion"--the exponential growth of the world wide birth rate and the stress it placed upon our ability, as a world, to meet basic human needs. Consider the following:

• In the year 1 AD, our worldwide population stood at 200 million;
• It took the next 1,500 years for world wide population to double, reaching 400 million in 1500 AD;
• From 1650 to 1850, only two hundred years, the world population doubled from 500 million to 1 billion;
• From 1850 to 1930, only eighty years, the world population doubled from 1 billion to 2 billion; and
• From 1930 to mid-1994, only 60 years, the world population has more than doubled, from 2 billion to 5.607 billion.

The graph below clearly relates this geometrically increasing upward trend in worldwide population growth.

Compounding this exponential population growth is an even more alarming fact--this population growth is not happening evenly throughout the world, but is concentrated geographically in the un- and underdeveloped nations. While developed countries are actually experiencing a decline in the birth rate, some even dropping below the human being replacement rate, un- and underdeveloped nations are witnessing the greatest number of births. These are nations that more often than not can ill afford the intensifying demands on already stressed resources. Widespread famine and starvation have been the legacy of this population growth, especially in equatorial ecosystems that do not have the ability to accommodate a large number of humans beings. This growth has been coupled with the attempt to implement western-style agricultural techniques and technologies which proved to be unsuitable for these types of ecosystems. The leading authority on the population growth issue was Paul Ehrlich, the Stanford University biologist, whose 1968 book The Population Bomb helped to focus the attention of the world on this problem. Ehrlich suggested methods that could be used to help reduce the birth rate and several countries, most notably China and India, adopted strict population controls. However, by the mid 1970s the issue of birth rate dropped off of the radar screen for a few reasons: those who sought to solve the problem through increasing industrialization soon realized that with increased per capita income also came increased resource consumption, and nations soon found that enforcing zero-population policies became a political impossibility. The focus of the world leaders then began to swing from population control to that of reducing consumption and designing more sustainable production methods, that is, those that would use fewer resources and produce less waste.

Modern Economic Thought

Since the Great Depression of the 1930s American economic thought has been dominated by Keynesian-neoclassical theory, which postulates that the amount of output, as measured by the Gross National Product (GNP) and Gross Domestic Product (GDP), provides the best way to determine the overall health of an economy. Under this "bigger is better" approach, making the whole economic pie bigger guaranteed all a larger individual piece. The progrowth mindset seemed to be working through the post-Depression period, and underlying assumptions about limitless resources were not called into question. It was not until 1970, when a group of international researchers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology began to examine the eventual effects of exponential worldwide economic growth, that the issue of limits was brought to the forefront. Their research was published in 1972 as a Club of Rome report entitled The Limits to Growth. The authors concluded that if present (present being 1970) growth trends in industrialization, birth rate, food production and the depletion of resources continued, the earth would reach its capacity to support this growth in the next 100 years. The result would be a global catastrophe; a sudden, uncontrollable decline in industrial capacity and world population. The authors advised that the way to prevent this from happening was to:

...(establish) a condition of ecological and economic stability that is sustainable far into the future--a state of global equilibrium in which the basic material needs of each person on earth are satisfied and each person has an equal opportunity to realize his individual human potential. (Krizek and Power 1996, 9)

The Limits to Growth was clear in stating that because there are limits to the world’s resources, there will also be limits to economic growth. Although the report drew intense and widespread criticism at the time it was published, its main contentions have helped to form the theoretical underpinnings for the contemporary sustainable development movement.

Some time after the Club of Rome report, a number of economists began to further examine the report’s findings. The result of their examination was the creation of a new theory known as "steady-state economics," which is essentially the economics of sustainability. "Steady-state" economics takes the position that "enough is best" and its major proponent, Louisiana State University economist Herman Daly, calls for the minimization of both consumption and production in order to build a sustainable economy. Daly's work Steady State Economics (1997) advocates "an economy in which the total population and the total stock of physical wealth are maintained constant at some desired levels by a ‘minimal’ rate of maintenance throughout and by physical production and consumption rates that are equal at the lowest feasible level" (Daly, 1972). Krizek and Power (1996, 10) define the theory this way:

Fundamental to the notion of steady-state economy is the recognition that economic (human) activity creates neither matter nor energy. Rather, human activity merely converts low entropy forms of both matter and energy (soil, sunlight, etc.) into high entropy forms that are useful to humans (cars, televisions, microwave ovens). Because the earth is a closed-loop system with finite limits, every gain of the human economy, by definition, must come at the expense of the "natural economy." Consequently, there are finite limits to the amount of low entropy matter that can be converted to human uses before natural systems and feedback loops begin to fail.

Steady-state economics has not yet gained wide acceptance in American economic thought, but the influence is growing and the theory has become a critical element of much of the international work on sustainable development.

Moving from Theory to Policy and Action

The preceding concepts laid a theoretical foundation for sustainable development. Although each of these concepts had its own impact, the concepts had not been combined into a unified effort leading to policy development and action before the 1980s. For that to happen would take some international events which would initiate excitement over a sustainable approach to development. This excitement was later captured when countries began to institutionalize sustainability as a national initiative.

Global Frameworks

The concept of sustainable development first emerged on the world stage in 1987 with the publication of Our Common Future, the report of the United Nation’s World Commission on Environment and Development. Popularly called the Brundtland Commission after the chairperson, Gro Harlem Brundtland, the prime minister of Norway, the commission’s very existence and resulting report was a defining moment in the history of the sustainable development movement. It was the landmark event through which sustainable development became a recognized global issue, promoting worldwide dialogue and establishing common goals for the year 2000 and beyond. A few years later the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro established twenty-seven principles which provided a compromise blueprint for achieving global sustainability between industrialized and developing countries for a more equitable application of environmental and economic conditions.

The Brundtland Commission: Defining Sustainable Development and Setting the World Agenda

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

- World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future 1987, 43.

In December 1983 the Secretary-General of the United Nations called for the establishment of a special, independent commission, know as the World Commission on Environment and Development, with the purpose of formulating a global agenda for change. The specific charge to the commission was:

• To propose long-term environmental strategies for achieving sustainable development by the year 2000 and beyond

• To recommend ways concern for the environment may be translated into greater cooperation among developing countries at different stages of economic and social development and lead to the achievement of common and mutually supportive objectives that take account of the interrelationships between people, resources, environment, and development

• To consider ways and means by which the international community can deal more effectively with environmental concerns

• To help define shared perceptions of long-term environmental issues and the appropriate efforts needed to deal successfully with the problems of protecting and enhancing the environment, a long-term agenda for action during the coming decades, and aspirational goals for the world community

(World Commission on Environment and Development, ix)

The World Commission, the members of which represented 21 separate nations, sought advice and support from thousands of organizations, individuals and institutes in the creation of the report, which was finally published in 1987. At first, many argued that the commission should focus exclusively on issues of environmental concern, but others on the commission felt this would be a grave mistake. The interconnectedness of the economy and the environment in people’s minds was confirmed during the many interviews conducted through the commission’s work. No clear expression of environmental issues resulted from these interviews; they were all interrelated to social issues, cultural issues and economic issues. It became evident to the commission that to look at the environment without also looking at its interrelationship to equity, parity and social and economic well-being would be misguided. In the words of Brundtland:

The environment does not exist as a sphere separate from human actions, ambitions, and needs, and attempts to defend it in isolation from human concerns have given the very word ‘environment’ a connotation of naivete in some political circles. The word ‘development’ has also been narrowed by some into a very limited focus, along the lines of ‘what poor nations should do to become richer’, and thus again is automatically dismissed by many in the international arena as being a concern of specialists, of those involved in questions of ‘development assistance’.

But the ‘environment’ is where we all live; and ‘development’ is what we all do in attempting to improve our lot within that abode. The two are inseparable. Further, development issues must be seen as crucial by the political leaders who feel that their countries have reached a plateau towards which other nations must strive. Many of the development paths of the industrialized nations are clearly unsustainable. And the development decisions of these countries, because of their great economic and political power, will have a profound effect upon the ability of all peoples to sustain human progress for generations to come.

Many critical survival issues are related to uneven development, poverty, and population growth. They all place unprecedented pressures on the planet’s lands, waters, forests, and other natural resources, not least in the developing countries. The downward spiral of poverty and environmental degradation is a waste of opportunities and of resources. In particular, it is a waste of human resources. These links between poverty, inequality, and environmental degradation formed a major theme in our analysis and recommendations. What is needed now is a new era of economic growth--growth that is forceful and at the same time socially and environmentally sustainable (World Commission on Environment and Development, xi - xii).

The Brundtland Commission was unique in that it represented the first global effort to address the issue of sustainable development. It also produced the first international policy document that recognized and addressed the interconnection between the economy and environmental well-being. Finally, the Brundtland Commission developed the most widely used definition of sustainable development: "Development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." This definition contained within it two crucial elements: first, the concept of "needs," especially the basic needs of the world’s poor, which the commission stressed must be given overriding priority, and second, the concept of "limits" imposed by technology and social organizations on the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs (World Commission on Environment and Development, 43).

The commission did not shy away from the word "growth" and consider it to be the root of all economic and environmental ills. In fact, the body embraced growth, provided certain changes occurred, as the path necessary to bring the developing nations more in line with those already receiving the benefits of industrialization. However, the commission warned that the world must design strategies that will help nations move from their current, often destructive growth paths, towards a long-range process of sustainable development. It argued that to proceed in a sustainable manner, environmental and development policy must meet certain critical objectives:

• Reviving Growth: Policies must help to stimulate growth in developing nations in order to result in increased economic well-being. At the same time, industrial countries need to maintain a certain level of growth (3 to 4 percent, at that time) if they are going to impact the expansion of the world economy. The commission recognized that poverty actually intensified pressures on the environment by encouraging the inefficient or unwise use of resources, overpopulation and other unsustainable practices. They focused on the need for an increase in per capita incomes in the Third World and the necessity to revive the economies of these nations in order to eliminate poverty. Industrialized nations need to continue current trends of growing along less energy- and material-intensive paths.

• Changing the Quality of Growth: The commission believed that changing the quality of growth means making a change in how we approach development, taking all of the eventual impacts, not just immediate impacts, into account. For example, a logger must consider as a cost against his/her profit not only the expenses incurred in harvesting, but also the long-range reduction on future revenues as a result of degradation of the forest. As another example, large-scale agriculture may increase the productivity of the land, but it also displaces small-scale farmers, skewing income distribution and creating poverty. It also often results in environmental degradation. Economic development is not sustainable if it contributes to vulnerability to crisis. Finally, concepts of growth must be broadened to include non-economic variables such as education and health care, clean water, air, and the protection of natural beauty. All of these factors should be incorporated into our efforts to attain economic well-being, according to the commission.

• Meeting Essential Human Needs: The commission raised a challenge: to meet the needs of an expanding world population in the basic of all human needs for livelihood, that is, employment. "Between 1985 and 2000 the labour force in developing countries will increase by nearly 900 million, and new livelihood opportunities will have to be generated for 60 million persons every year (World Commission on Environment and Development, 54). A second major need is for increased food production to not only feed more people because of expanding population, but also to address malnourishment. A third basic human need is for energy. Most poor Third World households depend upon wood for fuel, putting a strain on this resource that must be addressed to curb deforestation. Finally, interrelated basic needs such as housing, sanitation, water supply and health care have environmental impacts. The failure to meet these needs effectively is one of the major causes of malaria, gastrointestinal infections and other deadly diseases.

• Ensuring a Sustainable Level of Population: Population size must be kept at a level sustainable by the productive capacity of the ecosystem. While birth rates are declining in industrialized nations, the Third World, at a population of 3.7 billion of 1985 is projected to increase to 6.8 billion in 2025. If the experience of industrialized nations holds true, increased industrialization, per capita income, environmental improvement and social well-being go hand-in-hand with a reduction in birth rate. The commission therefore called for the facilitation of development in emerging nations as a method to help in ensuring a sustainable population level.

• Conserving and Enhancing the Resource Base: The commission believed that the conservation and enhancement of the Earth’s natural resource base should rest not only on development goals, but also on our moral obligation to other forms of life and to future generations. According to the commission: "Pressure on resources increases when people lack alternatives. Development policies must widen people’s options for earning a sustainable livelihood, particularly for resource-poor households and in areas under ecological stress." (World Commission on Environment and Development, 57).

• Reorienting Technology and Managing Risk: The accomplishment of all these objectives will necessitate a reorientation of technology, which is the critical link between humans and nature. The commission identified two steps that need to be taken to achieve this objective: "First, the capacity for technological innovation needs to be greatly enhanced in developing countries so that they can respond more effectively to the challenges of sustainable development. Second, the orientation of technology development must be changed to pay greater attention to environmental factors" (World Commission on Environment and Development, 60).

• Merging Environment and Economics in Decision Making: The common theme throughout these seven strategic imperatives for sustainable development is the integration of both the environment and the economy in decision making. The commission cautions that it is the tendency of rigid institutions to deal in isolation with one sector or industry at a time, failing to take account of the importance of linkages between these sectors. As a result, policies that are created address only the objectives of one segment instead of looking at impacts of each part on one another and the whole. For sustainable development to be achieved, this fragmentation must be overcome and changes in the legal and institutional framework must enforce the common interest.

The Bruntland Commission concluded that sustainable development seeks to promote harmony among humankind and between man and the natural world. To be effective, the pursuit of sustainable development requires the following:

• A political system that secures effective citizen participation in decision making
• an economic system that is able to generate surpluses and technical knowledge on a self-reliant and sustained basis
• A social system that provides for solutions for the tensions arising from disharmonious development
• A production system that respects the obligation to preserve the ecological base for development
• A technological system that can search continuously for new solutions
• An international system that fosters sustainable patterns of trade and finance
• An administrative system that is flexible and has the capacity for self-correction

These requirements should form the goals that underlie action on development, both at an international and national level. The commission recognizes that what makes a difference between success and failure is the sincerity with which these goals are undertaken, and the effectiveness and speed with which departures from these goals are corrected (World Commission on Environment and Development, 65).

The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro: Expanding the Dialogue of Sustainability

To improve the social, economic and environmental quality of human settlements and the living and working environments of all people...

The Earth Summit

The Earth Summit held in the summer of 1992 in Brazil was a watershed event in the sustainable development movement. Not only did it bring together an unprecedented number of countries, organizations and citizens from throughout the world, it represented the first time that developed and developing nations were able to reach a series of compromises on difficult issues related to the environment and development. The impact of the Earth Summit continued long after the conference itself concluded. The efforts of the various organizations formed before and during the two weeks in Rio, and the efforts continued by individual nations and communities to implement the principles promulgated during the Earth Summit, have continued the impact and influence of this global event.

The organizations formed during the summit that continue work to this day include: the Sustainable Development Commission, whose responsibility it is to promote the development of sustainable development procedures and policies throughout the world, the Planet Earth Council and the Business Council for Sustainable Development.

A platform of 27 principles, known as the Rio Declaration, were developed and adopted during the Earth Summit. These principles represented a series of compromises on difficult issues related to a long history of mistrust and accusations of exploitation between developed and undeveloped nations. The resulting agreement, widely regarded as the blueprint for achieving global sustainability, provided a framework through which world diplomats could work toward improving the economy and environment throughout the world. Key principles included:

Rio Principle #2:
The right of nation states to use their own resources as long as they do not harm the environment in other parts of the world

Rio Principle #3:
Nations have a right to pursue development

Rio Principle #4:
In order for development to be sustainable, it must reduce "unsustainable patterns of production and consumption"

Rio Principle #10:
All citizens must be involved and kept informed

Rio Principle #16:
Each polluter should be held responsible for his or her pollution

The central, overall agreement emerging from the Earth Summit was named Agenda 21, the goal of which was to "halt and reverse the environmental damage to our planet and to promote environmentally sound and sustainable development in all countries on earth." Moving the discussion of sustainability from theory to action, the Rio Declaration called for communities throughout the world to adopt and implement specific programs and actions centered on seven key objectives. These seven objectives included the provision of adequate shelter for all persons, the improvement of basic living conditions in cities, the adoption of sustainable energy and transportation approaches, the provision of land access for all families, the development of human resources and the lessening of the effects of man-made and natural disasters.

The results of the Earth Summit have been far reaching. Many communities in different parts of the world have adopted the principles of sustainable development as promulgated through the conference in Rio. National and international organizations have emerged to promote the adoption of Agenda 21 by communities and to help local jurisdictions implement programs based on these principles. The International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI), which played a key role in the development and adoption of Local Agenda 21 at the Earth Summit in 1992, is one such organization. The ICLEI formulated the Local Agenda 21 Initiative to assist local governments in taking on a major role in efforts to implement sustainability in their communities. By 1999, more than 1,800 local authorities in 64 countries were preparing Local Agenda 21 action plans.

National Frameworks

Following the Earth Summit’s creation of its 27 principles, national governments chose to set initiatives for sustainable practices. The United States' effort is significant because of its status as a well developed industrialized nation. Sweden’s effort through The Natural Step movement demonstrates a significant approach which has actually been experienced by industry and residential households throughout the country.

The U.S. Experience: Challenges by the President’s Council on Sustainable Development

Our vision is of a life-sustaining Earth. We are committed to the achievement of a dignified, peaceful, and equitable existence. A sustainable United States will have a growing economy that provides equitable opportunities for satisfying livelihoods and a safe, healthy, high quality of life for current and future generations. Our nation will protect its environment, its natural resource base, and the functions and viability of natural systems on which all life depends.

Vision Statement
The President's Council on Sustainable Development

The United States’ response to the global concern with sustainable development emerged officially with the creation of the President’s Council on Sustainable Development (PCSD) in June 1993. The creation of the council was one of the first official actions of the Clinton administration, a testament to its importance. The members of the 25-person council, which included leaders from government, business, environmental, civil rights, labor and Native American organizations, were given a threefold mission:

1. To develop and recommend to the president a national sustainable development action strategy that will foster economic vitality

2. To develop an annual Presidential Honors Program recognizing outstanding achievements in sustainable development

3. To raise public awareness of sustainable development issues and participation in opportunities for sustainable development

The council set out to achieve this mission by seeking broad-based public input and launching an education and planning program. In February 1996 the council released its report entitled Sustainable America: A New Consensus.

This diverse council represented a microcosm of positions on the issues surrounding the environment and economy. Although it did not reach consensus on all issues, it did find sufficient common ground, based on shared values, that all members of the council chose to sign the report (see "We Believe" statement of the President’s Council on Sustainable Development, Appendix). In the preface to this document the two chairs for the council, one an environmentalist (Jonathan Lase, president of the World Resources Institute) and the other an industrialist (David T. Buzzelli, Vice President of the Dow Chemical Company), agreed that it is important to avoid the confrontation and mistrust that has too often attended discussions regarding the environment and the economy because these contentious interactions only contribute to the polarization that already exists. They said that the "politics of mistrust" presented the greatest obstacle to the process of change and innovation that the council felt was necessary to achieve shared goals. Consensus, they said, would serve to move the country ahead farther and faster than confrontation. The council chose to provide a model for these intense discussions that would lead to collaboration and common goals.

The council adopted the Brundtland Commission’s definition of sustainable development but added its own vision statement to augment and tailor it for its own purposes (see above). To achieve the vision, the council developed a series of ten goals covering a wide range of issues, issued policy recommendations to support the implementation of these goals, and designed a series of indicators by which to measure progress toward reaching sustainability. The ten goals identified by the council were as follows:

The report’s policy recommendations were aimed at challenging local communities in their quest to become more sustainable, in recognition that increasingly more decision making is occurring at the community level than the federal or state levels. The council’s report challenges communities to develop community-driven strategic planning and collaborative regional planning, improve community and building design, take steps to decrease sprawl, and create strong, diversified local economies while increasing jobs and other economic opportunities (President’s Council on Sustainable Development, 1996, Ch. 4, 1). The council presented a picture of sustainable communities as a benchmark toward which to strive:

Sustainable communities are cities and towns that prosper because people work together to produce a high quality of life that they want to sustain and constantly improve...And while there is no single template for a sustainable community, cities and towns pursuing sustainable development often have characteristics in common. ...all people have access to educational opportunities that prepare them for jobs to support themselves and their families in a dynamic local economy that is prepared to cope with changes in the national and global economy. People are involved in making decisions that affect their lives. Businesses, households, and government make efficient use of land, energy, and other resources, allowing the area to achieve a high quality of life with minimal waste and environmental damage. These communities are healthy and secure, and provide people with clean air to breathe and safe water to drink.

Engagement of All Citizens

In sustainable communities, people are engaged in building a community together. They are well-informed and actively involved in making community decisions. They make decisions for the long term that benefit future generations as well as themselves. They understand that successful long-term solutions require partnership and a process that allows for representatives of a community’s diverse sectors to be involved in discussions, planning, and decisions that respond directly to unique local needs. They also recognize that some problems cannot be solved within the confines of their community and that working in partnership with others in the region is necessary to deal with them.

Infrastructure, Land and Structures

In sustainable communities, people use a participatory approach to make conscious decisions about design. The concepts of efficiency and livability guide these decisions. Development patterns promote accessibility, decrease sprawl, reduce energy costs, and foster the creation of built environments on a human scale. Use of environmentally superior technologies for transportation, industry, buildings, and agriculture boosts productivity and lowers business costs while dramatically reducing pollution, including solid and hazardous wastes.

Sustainable Economic Development

In sustainable communities, partnerships involving business, government, labor and employees promote economic development and jobs. Participants cooperatively plan and carry out development strategies that create diversified local economies built on unique local advantages and environmentally superior technologies. These efforts can strengthen the local economy, buffering it from the effects of national and international economic trends that result in job losses in a community. Such partnerships also invest in education and training to make community members more productive, raise earning power, and help strengthen and attract business.
(President’s Council on Sustainable Development, Ch. 4, 2-3).

The council encourages communities to engage in a planning process that will help set them on the path to sustainability. They identified specific communities throughout the United States that were using innovative approaches to determining and preparing for their future, and recognized that these communities followed certain steps in their community-driven planning process. First, communities provided the opportunity for all residents to participate in the planning process, going out of their way to ensure diversity, intergenerational input, and inclusiveness. The inclusion of individuals who were historically un- or under-represented was important. These community residents, through a series of meetings and events, helped to develop their vision of their communities' future. Next, the communities inventoried and assessed their existing human, economic and natural resources to identify assets that could be built upon. After that, goals were identified and prioritized, specific projects or actions that would help to achieve these goals were formulated, and finally, indicators or measurements that help to determine if the community remains on track were detailed for each goal.

While the challenges to communities offered by the President’s Council on Sustainable Development may seem too complex, or too much of a change in "business as usual" to be worth implementing, long-range costs of not addressing these issues must be considered seriously. For example, the cost of not preparing for the future, the cost of not considering the effects that economic development may have on the local environment, or the cost that failing to invest in local schools may have on the long-term social well-being of the community may be greater than any short-term gain can offset.

The following Web site has the latest information regarding the President's Council on Sustainable Development .

The Swedish Experience: Achieving National Consensus on Sustainability through The Natural Step Program

In 1988 a sustainability movement was born in Sweden that has been, over the past decade, embraced by that nation and has gained a following in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Australia, Canada, the United States and other countries as well. Based on the vision of Karl-Henrik Robert, noted Swedish oncologist and cancer researcher, The Natural Step (TNS) movement promotes a series of basic sustainability principles that have been adopted by both private industry and the public as guiding principles for both businesses and communities. The success of The Natural Step movement can be attributed to the development of clearly articulated principles, a charismatic proponent with a vision, and clear recognition that in order for it to be adopted as policy and action, broad consensus and inclusion of diverse interests must be achieved.

Dr. Robert’s insights and message are based on his personal experiences treating children with cancer and the conclusions that he reached regarding the relationship between man-made toxins in the environment and the increasing incidences of these types of diseases. As a scientist, Robert knew that there were fundamental principles by which all cells operate. He observed that toxins, in controlled doses, were beneficial at a molecular level in arresting cancer; however, doses too large could actually harm the host human. An environmentalist by avocation, he transposed these observations to the earth’s natural systems, concluding that if people exceed the earth’s ability to transform or absorb man-made toxins, the quality of environmental systems will degrade.

Issues surrounding quantities and kinds of toxins that produce harmful effects on the environment have presented an enduring stumbling block to consensus building within the Swedish scientific community. A scientist’s reality is determined by knowns and controlled variables as opposed to uncertainties and imprecise methodology. Robert recognized that reaching consensus in such a professional environment would be highly unlikely, so he purposely sidestepped the debate regarding levels and types of toxins, and focused instead on designing core principles that could be adopted universally by all of Sweden’s most prominent scientists. In 1988 Robert developed and circulated throughout the Swedish scientific community a paper that proposed a series of principles supportive of natural sustainable systems. These principles were based on indisputable laws of thermodynamics and matter conservation. Robert realized that in order for these principles to be effective in leading to policy and action, they must be agreed to by a consensus of scientists, so he devised an effective system of eliciting comment and agreement. He circulated a draft of the document to 50 leading scientists, incorporated their comments into a revised document, sent it out again, revised the document again, and repeated this process for 22 revisions until all 50 scientists agreed with his four-principle framework for sustaining natural systems. The four principles are as follows:

System Condition #1 - Substances from the Earth’s crust must not systematically increase in nature. Robert explains in practical terms that this means fossil fuels, other minerals and metals must not be extracted at a rate greater than their redeposit into the earth’s crust (Bandy n.d., 11). The goal then becomes to reduce our dependence upon these finite, virgin resources.

System Condition #2 - Substances that are produced by society must not have a systematically increased presence in nature (Bandy n.d., 11). The intent of this system condition is to recognize where man-made substances, such as chemicals or plastics, are produced at a rate faster than they can be broken down (biodegrade) into the environment or deposited into the crust of the earth. The two variables that must be considered are the biodegradability of the substance and the length of time it takes the earth to reabsorb the substance.

System Condition #3 - The physical basis for the productivity and diversity of nature must not face systematic deterioration. Productivity refers to fertility, and diversity refers to biodiversity, and within this context, humans must not harvest more from nature than can be recreated or renewed. Diverse and special habitats must be protected, and land use must reflect our efforts to maintain the quantity and quality of nature’s productive surfaces (Frankel 1998, 180).

System Condition #4 - There must be fair and efficient use of resources with respect to meeting human needs. Robert states, "Basic human needs must be met with the most resource-efficient methods possible, including a just resource distribution" (Robert, unpublished article, quoted in Frankel 1998, 180). In order to pursue this objective two things must happen; consumerism, especially among wealthy nations, must be reduced and the efficiency of organizations and the way we deal with the environment must be improved (Frankel 1998).

These four system conditions became Sweden’s "compass" for achieving sustainability. The Natural Step approach was officially endorsed by the King of Sweden and other leaders in the country. It has been adopted by such prominent Swedish industries as Electrolux and IKEA and has won praise from environmentalists. The four principles were presented in an easy-to-comprehend booklet and sent, with a companion audiotape, to every household (totaling 4 million) and school in Sweden. Corporations that believed in TNS underwrote the $4.5 million cost of this mailing. More that 3 million young people in schools and communities have been educated about the four principles of TNS, and a Youth Parliament has formed to further the work of TNS. Additionally, over 150 municipalities in Sweden are using the TNS approach.

Additional information can be obtained through the Web page for The Natural Step

Definitions of Sustainability

Then I say the earth belongs to each...generation during its course, fully and in its own right, no generation can contract debts greater than may be paid during the course of its own existence.

Thomas Jefferson
September 6, 1789

It would be nice if the reader could be provided with a clear definition of a sustainable world. Then a person could logically flow through methods or ways to achieve sustainability. Definitions help us determine how our destination looks. The term "economic development" causes the listener to imagine an effort that will enhance the financial well-being of an individual or community. "Social equity" tells the reader that something is being done to create fairness in the distribution of resources among various cultures, groups or individuals. The word "ecology" deals with understanding and caring for the natural environment. Yet, somehow, combining these three concepts and using them to define the word "sustainable" becomes confusing. Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary tells us that "sustainable" means "1 : capable of being sustained 2 a : of, relating to, or being a method of harvesting or using a resource so that the resource is not depleted or permanently damaged ... b : of or relating to a lifestyle involving the use of sustainable methods."

Proponents of sustainable development talk about continuing economic development, continuing social justice and continuing the natural environment in a way that does not deplete or permanently damage the base of any resources needed for each to continue. Using the last part of Webster’s definition requires each of us to adopt "a lifestyle that involv[es] ... sustainable methods." It can become stressful to talk about balance between economic, social and environmental issues because each are often dependent upon the use of the same resources. A recent discussion by the closing panel at the recent "National Town Meeting" on sustainable development (May 1999, Detroit, Michigan) illustrates the struggle. This panel, comprising Fortune 500 corporate executives, federal agency executives, directors of local and national organizations/citizens groups, and youth, was discussing the concept of global warming. The panel recognized the issue was not about agreement on the existence of global warming but rather about finding the limits associated with the solutions to global warming. It is such limits that, perhaps, cause people difficulty in defining sustainability.

The Center of Excellence for Sustainable Development, coordinated by the United States Department of Energy, has a section of its Web page devoted to listing various definitions of sustainability. While each definition carries its own emphasis, there are some common themes present in, as well as a wisdom that comes from, the definitions collectively.

Themes:

1. Importance of considering the needs of future generations:

A sustainable society is one which satisfies its needs without diminishing the prospects of future generations.

--Lester Brown, Founder and President, Worldwatch Institute

2. The preservation of natural resources into the future:

"Sustainable growth" is a contradiction in terms: nothing physical can grow indefinitely. "Sustainable use" is applicable only to renewable resources: it means using them at rates within their capacity for renewal.

--International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

3. Wise use of resources:

Sustainability refers to the ability of a society, ecosystem, or any such ongoing system to continue functioning into the indefinite future without being forced into decline through exhaustion ... of key resources.

-- Robert Gilman, President of Context Institute

4. An appreciation for the connection between environmental, social and economic resources:

Our vision is of a life-sustaining earth. We are committed to the achievement of a dignified, peaceful, and equitable existence. We believe a sustainable United States will have an economy that equitably provides for satisfying livelihoods and a safe, healthy, high quality life for current and future generations. Our nation will protect its environment, its natural resource base, and the functions and viability of natural systems on which all life depends.

-- President's Council on Sustainable Development

It is enlightening to participate in a discussion group trying to define sustainability. Participants struggle with the actual meaning of even the simplest of words. In an effort to put on paper such a personal message each person begins to encounter his or her deep feelings about the environment, the future, economics, social fairness, equity, and the common interest. Some find struggling with a definition so frustrating that they conclude that although we may not know how to define sustainability, we do know it when we see it. It is difficult, if not impossible, to be against sustainability. When an individual first encounters the word "sustainable," he or she may wonder why there is a debate about sustainability. It just seems right to take sustainable actions.

This appreciation of the concept of sustainability is the wisdom that seems to come from struggling to discover a clear definition. A person can imagine that this same struggle existed for the participants of the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Commission) as they worked toward their definition of sustainability: "Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."

This definition is the one most widely found in the literature on sustainability. The goal of the Brundtland Commission in creating this definition was to make the topic of sustainability a conversation that everyone could enter. In its report Our Common Future , the Brundtland Commission identified a number of "common challenges" that it believed needed to be addressed to maintain the earth. These challenges involve energy, urbanization, population and human resources, species and ecosystems, industrial development and food security. This report and definition made the discussions about the future of the earth discussions that proponents of both economic development and environmental conservation could appreciate. The commission made the discussions even more interesting when it called for "equity and the common interest." This phrase made discussions about the future not simply an economic and environmental issue, but also a social issue.

From the landmark action by the Bruntland Commission, the issue of defining "sustainability" or "sustainable development" became popularized. The report Our Common Future, however, did not provide details of how to actualize sustainability at the local community level. What has arisen since this 1987 report is an effort to further interpret and define sustainability often based on the particular mission or goal of the organization under consideration. Some definitions emphasize the importance of environmental sustainability with such terms as "natural capital," "renewable resources," "production capacity of land and water" and "preventing the loss of genetic diversity." Still other definitions highlight the economic importance when they speak of an equitable future, an economy for future generations or no debts for future generations. Each organization, it seems, focuses on a particular set of characteristics, processes and initiatives to define sustainability (Roseland 1994, 2) and, more importantly, outline successful sustainable behaviors.

Interpreting Sustainability

Organizations which focus on sustainability often identify particular examples of success stories regarding application of sustainable practices. Nearly every Web site with a sustainable approach has a section on success stories (http://www.sustainable.doe.gov/management/sstoc.htm). These successes are listed under numerous headings that include the word "sustainable." Such headings include "sustainable development," "sustainable cities," "ecological sustainability," "sustainable agriculture," "sustainable measures," "sustainable growth," "sustainable societies," "sustainable forests" and even "sustainable sports." There is, however, a sense within all applications of the word "sustainable" that it involves some kind of balance. This balance may be looked at by some as being between the environment on which life is dependent, the economy from which we seek financial security and society from which we seek some type of quality for living. Sustainability has been characterized as a three-legged stool, with its seat dependent on all three legs to give balance. If any one of the legs is missing the seat will not be in balance and will be unable to carry the weight of the person. Those talking about sustainability over the past few decades often approach the subject feeling that one or more of the stool’s legs has been missing (or forgotten). That means that for the stool to be back in balance the missing leg must be installed. When we listen to the various organizations involved in discussions or actions regarding sustainability we begin to discover variations regarding the emphasis placed on sustainability. The focus of organizations seems to be on individual activities that will collectively lead to a more sustainable world. It is indeed important to recognize that to live sustainability is a conscious individual choice. This focus on individual aspects of sustainability can be seen within the literature, program activities, and emphasis which some organizations or individuals bring to the discussion of what "sustainable" means.

While the challenges to communities offered by the President’s Council on Sustainable Development may seem too complex, or too much of a change in "business as usual," to be worth implementing, long range costs of not addressing these issues must be considered seriously. For example, the cost of not preparing for the future, the cost of not considering the effects that economic development may have on the local environment, or the costs that failing to invest in local schools may have on the long term social well-being of the community are greater than any short-term gain can offset.

The following web site has the latest information regarding the President's Council on Sustainable Development .

The Swedish Experience: Achieving National Consensus on Sustainability through The Natural Step Program

Some parties bring expertise and emphasis on the built environment to discussions of sustainability. They bring approaches that seek to incorporate sustainable practices into new development or rehabilitation of existing development. For example, this expertise may be in actual construction of buildings or in areas of land use planning. Such contributions to sustainable development come from architects, planners and consultants. Roseland identifies these contributions as contributions of Designers (Roseland 1994, 4). The Web sites of the American Planning Association and the Greenbuilding Information Council provide examples of sustainable contributions to the built environment.

Practitioners bring assistance to efforts surrounding sustainable development approaches directed by municipalities or local governments. Practitioners try to assist public officials in finding the balance that sustainability fosters. Practitioners focus on issues of urban development, cities and local efforts primarily by political systems. The sustainability emphasis of practitioners is demonstrated by the work of the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI). ICLEI defines a local area as sustainable if it "is designed, built and operates in a way that uses energy and natural resources efficiently and equitably, for both present and future generations of human and other species" (ICLEI, no date given, 1). A major effort of ICLEI is to help local governments initiate strategies for sustainable practices. To support this effort, ICLEI created the Local Agenda 21 Initiative to fulfill the objectives contained in Chapter 28 of the 1992 United Nations Earth Summit. Another United States example can be seen on the Web site of the Joint Center for Sustainable Communities. The center is a collaboration of The United States Conference of Mayors and The National Association of Counties. The center serves as a resource where local leaders can come together and address sustainability issues.

Communities can be places defined not only by geographical boundaries but also by interest. People can form communities based on association, occupations, beliefs, or any number of circumstances. An emphasis is placed on social interaction, which is often evaluated on items such as values, principles and measures. Sustainability among communities of interest focuses on ways in which communities can develop more self-reliance to meet local needs from within existing community resources. Roseland identifies this "sustainable communities" literature as that of Visionaries (Roseland 1994, 3). An example of such literature would be literature dealing with sustainable agriculture. The Sustainable Agriculture Network provides outreach regarding research and information on sustainable agricultural systems. Another example would be the Sustainable Business Challenge, which focuses on developing sustainability understanding among business professionals by such means as testing and certifying them.

A fourth orientation toward sustainability emphasizes the damage humans and their social context have done to the environment. Such a focus is helpful in raising issues regarding the importance of living within the capacity of the world’s natural resources. People in this camp emphasize the systems view which sees the interconnection of humans to everything else on earth, respecting a holistic approach. They think in terms of a new world order, seeing it as a society which values a more sustainable course than the industrial society of the Western world. Development is encouraged to place emphasis on the area’s natural features and incorporate grassroots initiative. Roseland classifies this camp, which emphasizes sustainable communities, as Activist. Organizations such as Redefining Progress seek new ways to measure progress besides traditional national economic growth measurements.

Worldwatch Institute is a nonprofit organization that provides research regarding emerging global problems and the link between economic and environmental support systems.

Roseland’s research of sustainable community literature clarifies the variations within sustainability themes. Activists place emphasis on natural capital and the need to place the environment at the center of the sustainability discussion. Visionaries will direct us towards the sustainability activities which emphasize the importance of recognizing communities of interest and association as well as place. Visionaries' view focuses on the potential present within these associations. Those interested in sustainability from a Practitioners view will emphasize the importance of local sustainable initiatives by governments and geographical communities in redesigning communities. Finally, when discussing sustainability with Designers we will hear emphasis placed on creating new developments and enhancing existing developments through urban and community designs which encourage the revival of public life.

Each category presented by Roseland includes interaction between each of the three foundations (legs of the stool) of sustainability: economy, environment and social resources. Each focuses on finding balance among these three foundations. There is no division by audience in each of the various categories of orientation. Each category also provides assistance to a wide range of parties including individuals, public officials, communities, organizations, governments and local residents. What distinguishes each category is how particular worldviews, values, priorities and passions cause significant attention to be directed in the creation of sustainable communities.

It is clear that the desire of the Bruntland Commission to encourage conversation by its definition of sustainability has led to various thoughts and practices on how to actualize the concept of sustainability. There is a rich discussion unfolding regarding sustainability that may well be enhanced by each participant to further define sustainability based on the individual's particular emphasis. What is most exciting about all this continued effort to further define sustainability is the fact that all of us are legitimate participants in determining what is sustainable.

Equity: The Goal of Sustainable Development

What then is the goal of sustainable development? Is it to get humans to respect nature more? Is it about better living environments for urban residents? Is it about urban and rural growth patterns? Is it about the global relationships we are beginning to understand? Is it to preserve farmland? Is it to provide opportunities for those in poverty? Is it all about the struggle between economic development and environmental concern? The answer is yes to all these questions. But is there a common thread among all these issues and the many not mentioned here?

Sustainable development calls for balance between the use and care of economic, environmental and social resources. Sustainability is about stewardship; caring for, respecting and sharing the resources we have encountered or created. Whatever the sustainable topic may be, what we are really trying to decide is what will bring equity. Equity is defined as what is just and fair.

Robert M. Solow in a USA Today article entitled "Sustainability: Our Debt to the Future" identifies the central issue of sustainability as equity. Solow, who won the 1987 Nobel Prize in Economics, talks about "distributional equity," which he describes as dealing with who gets what (Solow 1992, 40). For Solow, sustainability is a discussion about distributional equity between the present generation and future generations. Sustainability is about the sharing of well-being between generations. Sustainability calls upon the current generation not to reach its level of satisfaction by impoverishing future generations. Solow discusses the substitution of goods and services, referring to the economic term "fungible" (40). Fungible, he tells us, means that one resource can take the place of another. What the current generation must concentrate on is leaving a "generalized capacity to create well-being, not any particular natural resource or thing" (41). The example Solow uses is aluminum. Is it really this generation's obligation to leave aluminum available to future generations? Is aluminum a necessary ingredient of a generation’s well-being? Or is the obligation of this generation to leave a resource which has the same capacity to perform the functions of aluminum? Solow argues it is the latter.

At the core of the sustainability discussion is the question of equity. Equity not only between the present generation and future generations as Solow suggests, but also in other matters. Equity between the environment and the economy and the societal good. Equity between undeveloped nations with natural resources and developed nations with excess demand for these resources. Equity between those who economically have plenty and those who suffer in poverty. Equity between urban demands and agricultural space. Equity between demand for residential space and the need for open space. Equity between humans and all living species. This list of equity issues goes on and on; it is without limits. And that is exactly why there are so many different understandings of sustainability. Each group and each individual will play a role in raising questions about equity from their particular points of interest. When we enter discussions about sustainability we are entering conversations about equity. We are trying to discover what is just and fair within a framework in which there are not clear, easy, unanimous answers. Instead communities, whether of place or association, must continually discuss and review their decisions. When we accept the question of sustainability to be about equity we can begin to reflect on how we are going to go about deciding what is just and fair. We can start setting some goals which are measurable to define balance between our use and care of economic, social and environmental resources.

The issue of equity starts to move sustainable development beyond an individual decision. Equity involves a community decision. Communities have defined fairness throughout history. Decisions are made about health care, education, tax rates, transportation, recreation, income levels, utility services, crime and punishment and a host of other issues by communities. These decisions are often reflected in the application of development strategies. Traditional development efforts focused on the opportunity to achieve equity provided through economic growth and measured success reviewing economic statistics. Sustainable development brings a fundamental change in how equity is determined. Sustainable development does not remove the importance of economic benefits but matches and evaluates such benefits in concert with social and environmental benefits. An understanding of the contrast between traditional development strategies and goals and sustainable development goals will help us discover how looking at the world through key sustainability concepts can lead to the discovery of new ways to create equity.

Traditional Development and Sustainable Development: Compared and Contrasted

Both traditional and sustainable development models have been developed and operationalized in response to our need to improve the well-being of our communities and their residents, both in the present and the future. This desire is as true in the United States as it is throughout the rest of the world. Both traditional and sustainable philosophies are deeply concerned with insuring that individuals and families are afforded opportunities to be financially self-sufficient and to live in decent, affordable housing, educate their children so that their future opportunities are enhanced, enjoy a clean, safe and attractive local environment, and leave a legacy of well-being and opportunity for their children.

Although both models start with the same desires for community, the "roots" of traditional and sustainable development are different, leading to divergent views about the best way to work toward their desired ends. How proponents of these two approaches operate, and what they focus on to ensure that they are achieving a community vision, is very different in a number of critical ways when applying the traditional or the sustainable development model. These divergent worldviews and differences in root values have led to a passionate debate among those proclaiming one position or the other.

It is useful to review a delineation of the major commonalities and differences between the two perspectives. First, although both place importance on using measures or indicators to track their progress toward reaching the community vision, the types of measurements and the ways in which they are used and the importance afforded them, are quite different. Second, although both examine the past and present to look into the future, how far forward they look is not the same. Third, both recognize the importance of involving local stakeholders and key leaders in the development process, but beyond that the push toward inclusiveness of all sectors of the community is quite different. Finally, both recognize that even local communities are part of a larger, global network, but their views of community priorities and needs vis a vis the world are not the same.

In the following sections we will explore, in greater depth, these critical differences and similarities between sustainable and traditional development, how the traditional model approaches community economic development, and how this traditional model considers social and ecological elements at the community level. We will also identify cornerstones of sustainable development.

What is Traditional Economic Development?

In American culture, and in fact in most of the Western world, we have traditionally measured success, on both a personal and corporate level, by using economic values and measurements. Private companies are perpetually held accountable to their owners and shareholders to make a profit. Greater profits translate to an increasing value of the company’s stock shares, enhancing its ability to attract shareholder investment. An individual’s social status is conferred by the amount of money the person makes as reflected by the neighborhood in which he or she lives, and the make and number of cars he or she owns. The greater a person's income, and the more the person possesses in material goods, the more the person is viewed as a success in others' eyes.

Economically based values are pervasive in American culture as they relate to an individual’s or a business’s status. Similar economic values and measurements have also traditionally indicated the difference between successful and less successful communities. The labels "distressed communities" and "depressed neighborhoods" have become synonymous with failure and moral decay and the inability to control one’s destiny. And this distressed status is primarily conferred by using economic measures such as joblessness, eroding tax base, low per capita income, substandard housing and homelessness. It is therefore no surprise that traditional economic development efforts have been aimed at helping a community reach its vision of prosperity - and therefore success - by launching strategies that are targeted at correcting these economic shortcomings. Such strategies include expanding the local tax base, creating new jobs for area residents, attracting new industry, building local business, and encouraging private investment.

Since American culture does use economic values and measurements, local communities feel, at first, comfortable reaching their overall community vision through the application of economic measurements. The communities also feel comfortable using these economic indicators to determine whether they are successfully moving toward their vision of prosperity and success. Through the economic development activities related to increasing the local tax base (property, income) in a community, income is generated first to meet and then go beyond residents' basic needs. If the efforts work, communities feel successful since they are able to generate additional wealth. This "excess" wealth generated can then be used to address the social and environmental needs of the community. So traditional economic development focuses first on the basic activities, such as job creation, that will lead toward the enhancement of local wealth. The excess wealth generated will then be applied to meet the broader social, environmental and cultural goals of the community. The authors, as former economic development practitioners, were given the message in their local communities - "You pay attention to work with business and industry to create jobs and build local wealth, and the rest of our community residents' needs can then be met."

Another concept important in the traditional economic development field is the notion of growth as an indicator of prosperity. Areas in which growth is sought include jobs, the number of businesses in a community, property values and population. The quality of this growth has traditionally been less of an issue than the importance of its taking place. Because a typical community loses five to eight percent of its jobs each year (Boyle, 1992, p. 3), trying to maintain the status quo can result in a community’s economic decline. Communities must grow at least a little to maintain what they already have, and to improve they must grow even more. Let’s look at the experience of Fairfax County, Virginia:

Located in the Washington, D.C. suburbs, (Fairfax County) has experienced rapid residential growth over the last three decades. In the 1970's, county government leaders faced a severe fiscal crisis. They either had to raise property taxes or find an alternative source of revenues. Business growth was the answer. Unlike residents, businesses pay more in taxes than they receive in services. The Fairfax Economic Development Commission was given a seven-figure budget and told to go forth and bring business to the county. The product proved to be very marketable. Over the next sixteen years, the county attracted several Fortune 500 corporate headquarters and numerous technology-based software, telecommunications, and electronic firms.

Unfortunately, county investments in roads and other support systems lagged. In 1987, this "buy now-pay later" approach collapsed. Faced with a large bill for needed road expansion, voters threw out the architects of growth who had held office for almost two decades and elected slow- or no-growth advocates. Once in office, this new Board of supervisors not only changed the groundrules for future development; they also reneged on agreements for projects in place and under development. Their efforts worked too well. Business interest in the county evaporated. Existing businesses diverted expansions to other locations. Some even moved out of the county.

Unfortunately, all of this occurred just as the national economy entered a recession and federal spending dried up. The result was catastrophic--declining property values for the first time in twenty years, huge county budget deficits leading to tax increases plus layoffs of teachers, police and fire fighters, curtailment or closure of recreation and social services facilities. By 1991, county voters decided they had made a mistake four years earlier and returned a pro-growth Board of Supervisors. Most of the draconian zoning changes have not been rescinded but business remains skeptical. New investment is still just a trickle, not a stream (Boyle 1992, 3).

The lessons to be learned through the Fairfax County example are important. First, promoting growth without considering and addressing the local challenges that go along with such growth, i.e. impact on infrastructure, schools, housing, is a mistake that may very well jeopardize a community’s continued health. Second, switching strategies and local policies from progrowth to no-growth and back again sends a message of uncertainty and lack of commitment to the business sector from which it is difficult to rebuild mutual trust and the willingness to partner.

How do Economic Development Professionals View their Role in their Community?

In the traditional economic development paradigm it is growth that creates excess wealth. Once this excess wealth is created and basic residents' needs have been met, what is then left can be applied toward meeting social and environmental concerns. It becomes the job of the community economic developer to promote this growth and help to establish a business environment conducive to investment and job creation by the private sector.

Research on the needed job competencies of economic development professionals and the indicators they use to measure the impact of economic development in their communities has been conducted by Ohio State University Extension. The results of these studies offer insights into the professional’s perception of the key elements of their role in traditional economic development, their understanding of what is expected of them by their local communities, what measurements they use to gauge the success of their programs, and to what extent they recognize the need for balance between economic, social and ecological aspects of their community.

Survey of Economic Development Professionals attending the Ohio Economic Development Course

Every year the Ohio State University Extension Community Development Program conducts the Ohio Economic Development Course (OEDC) for the state’s economic development professional organization, the Ohio Development Association. This weeklong course, accredited by the American Economic Development Council, is intended to offer an in-depth introduction to the profession of economic development. Similar courses are offered in other states in the United States. The target audience for the OEDC is economic development professionals who have been working in the field for three years or less or more seasoned veterans who want a refresher and update on the basics of their profession. During the 1997 and 1998 OEDC, 108 professionals were asked to provide written responses to two questions:

• What does economic development mean to you?

• What do you see as valid measures to assess the impact of economic development?

The responses indicated an almost universal recognition that the development of the local economy was linked to improvements in the social and environmental resources of the community. Economic development was clearly seen as the means of reaching the ends of improved quality of life and well-being for community residents. Sixty-four percent of the respondents linked social components such as housing, education, and health care with economy. Seventeen percent of the respondents believed that economic development was needed to improve the "quality of life" or "well-being" of their local areas. Twelve percent of the respondents specifically tied improvements in the local environment with the development of their economy. Themes that came through in a number of the responses indicated an awareness of the need for balance, the importance of looking at the whole picture, the tie-in between community and economic development and community empowerment, self-sufficiency, and self-reliance. Some of the respondents used the word "sustainable" to qualify growth and development. While it is clear that these individuals see the philosophical relationship between economic, social and environmental considerations, the economic development professional is still using the single-dimensional measurement of economics as the starting point.

Thirty-one percent of the respondents took a more long-range focus in their answers. The need for planned development and master planning was mentioned frequently, as were land use issues such as agricultural preservation and the development of brownfields and inner-city areas. Diversity was mentioned only four times, but when taking a broader view and including comments about involving community residents from all walks of life, the response rate increased.

Seventeen percent of the respondents pointed to underlying problems and began to suggest solutions in their answers. For example, one participant called for the creation of an education-business partnership that would be involved in the long-range development of a qualified employee pool for those trades that are either in short supply or within desirable industries. This answer showed the respondents' recognition of the shortage of skilled labor in their communities and suggested a mechanism through which this problem could be addressed.

Seventeen percent of the surveyed professionals also mentioned the importance of considering impacts in the region, not just the community, when conducting economic development activities. They recognized the interdependence of local community efforts and the success of their regions as a whole. While none of the respondents mentioned the need to be aware of the impact of local efforts on the global village, they did recognize the need to look beyond community boundaries. It should be noted, however, that economic development professionals are often the primary source of reminding the community that they compete in a global economy.

When identifying specific measurements of economic development impact the overwhelming majority, 93% of the respondents, used traditional economic yardsticks. Most frequently mentioned were the number of jobs created, increases in tax base and tax revenues, business creation, expansion and retention, and private investment generated as valid measures to assess the impact of economic development. The respondents said the following:

• Job creation, employment, quality of labor force and related measures were the most frequently cited, with seventy-seven percent responding. These responses ranged from job creation and retention, to employment opportunities for youth, to labor force trained to meet the task at hand.

• Expansion of the tax base, tax revenues, and amount of new investment was the next most frequently occurring measurement, with fifty-four percent responding that these measures were important.

• Forty percent of the respondents named infrastructure development and improvement as a measure of impact. Specific types of infrastructure named most frequently included water, sewer, power and roads.

• Business expansions, attraction, creation, retention and turnover were mentioned by sixteen percent of the respondents. This category was closely associated with job creation; a typical response in this category was "job creation due to business attraction." Other related responses not included in those listed above entailed requests for information from businesses, the number and types of businesses opening and closing, number of businesses assisted, business loans made, and overall business climate of the community. Many respondents saw their role as helping the community to create an atmosphere conducive to business development and growth.

• Growth was a frequently occurring theme, mentioned twenty-eight percent of the time, although many responses were qualified with such modifiers as "sustainable," "steady," "responsible," "controlled," and "growth in harmony for the future."

In summation, the economic development professionals attending the Ohio Economic Development Course are beginning to connect the relationship between economic issues, environmental issues and social issues. This indicates that they are on the path to see their role in terms of how it contributes to the larger context of community sustainability. However, they are still defining their primary role in a one-dimensional manner, i.e. that of enhancing the economies of their communities through a focus on job creation, expansion of the tax base, and business attraction, retention and creation. They use traditional economic indicators as the starting point from which to measure the impact of their efforts in the economic development arena. They then transfer their success based upon these economic indicators to answer the question "economic development for what?" They recognize the contribution of a healthy economy and assume that economic success will transfer toward meeting the community’s social and environmental goals and improve quality of life for community residents.

It is important to recognize the background, education, experience and level of maturity that those persons choosing to practice community economic development come to the profession already possessing. In Ohio it is rare to find an individual holding the position of economic development professional who was specifically trained for that career path. Practitioners frequently come to the profession with a wealth of experience in other, oftentimes related, fields. A profile of individuals involved in economic development has been tracked through the Ohio Economic Development Course over the past three years (1996, 1997 & 1998). This profile indicates that seventy-nine of the persons enrolled in the course have three years or less of economic development experience. Even though these individuals are relatively new to the profession, they are not recent graduates entering the workplace for the first time. Seventy-four percent of the participants in the course were 30 to 49 years of age (forty-eight percent of these individuals were 40 to 49 years of age). Forty-seven percent have earned a bachelor’s degree, and thirty-two percent have earned a masters’ degree. Persons enrolled in the economic development course are employed within various organizations including local and state government, utility companies, economic development organizations and public agencies such as human services. This profile of economic development professionals new to the field suggests that individuals in this profession enter it later in their work career after working in various occupations. The individuals are well educated and bring a wealth of experience and knowledge to the profession.

Competency Profile of the Economic Development Professional - The Experience in Ohio

A separate study by Ohio State University Extension inventoried the Competency Profile of the Ohio Economic Development Professional, and identified key areas of expertise that economic developers must have to perform their role at the community level. This research indicated that these professionals must have knowledge and skills related to a wide variety of subjects including time management, local codes, marketing, management, general business, economics, public finance (including taxes), regulatory information, government structures, listening, public speaking, retail development, housing development, community relations, site development, infrastructure, environment and the ability to "schmooze" (Rohrer 1996). Economic development not only necessitates the development of skills, knowledge and expertise in the "nuts and bolts" area of business development and infrastructure, but also necessitates the development of the person’s "people skills," i.e. the person's ability to motivate, collaborate, problem solve and deal with conflict.

The Economic Development Professional as Leader in the Community

The traditional reliance on economic indicators at a time when community residents are beginning to more vociferously state their positions based on personal values contributes to conflict over divergent cultural values while, at the same time, it creates new challenges and leadership opportunities for the economic development professional. Some community residents who have reached economic stability and comfort experience a change in their personal awareness and begin to focus more on environmental or social issues. This is analogous to Abraham Maslow’s "Hierarchy of Needs." Maslow claims that when individuals satisfy their most basic needs, that is food and shelter, they are ready to move on to higher-level needs, such as social affinity and, once all other needs have been met, they culminate in self-actualization. So once community residents' employment, income and economic well-being needs are met, they are ready to move on to concerns related to the environment and societal relations. Oftentimes, though, they become so locked into their own perspectives that they are unable to see the concerns of others, let alone understand or validate them. Since American culture is still heavily locked into the use of economic values, and because these economic values are used to define successful social and environmental standards, we constantly struggle as communities to define acceptable indicators and measurements which incorporate social and environmental concerns along with our economic goals. As the primary spokesperson for the community’s economic status, economic development professionals are thrust into the center of this conflict. They are expected not only to educate and inform community leaders and residents, but also to serve as a catalyst between private and public sectors and take on a visible leadership role in the community. This pivotal role puts them right in the middle of the debate over differing values in what is evolving from a discussion of traditional economic development to a future-oriented sustainable development discussion.

What is Successful Economic Development in Community Terms?

Economic development professionals follow the lead of their local communities. Their professional survival depends on their ability to "read" the wishes and desired direction of their communities and community leaders with great accuracy. A loose paraphrase of Mahatma Gandhi, one of the most famous leaders in history, illustrates their approach: "I’d better find out where my followers are going so I can get out in front and lead them there."

How do communities view economic development? The concept of excess wealth generated by economic initiatives and its use to enhance a community’s social and environmental conditions clearly emerges through a case study of a fairly typical small town in north central Ohio. Local leaders and citizens were asked by OSU Extension what economic development means to them, and their responses illustrate how the community contributes to the overall discussion and leads into considerations of sustainable development.

Bucyrus, population 14,000, is in primarily agricultural Crawford County. Equal distances from the medium-size cities of Mansfield and Medina, and about an hour north of Ohio’s state capital of Columbus, Bucyrus has experienced both the economic benefits and land development pressures experienced often by many small cities located in the urban fringe. Bucyrus is the county seat. Its economy is heavily dependent upon industry, with such companies as General Electric and Timken having manufacturing plants in the city. In the course of community interviews, a banker, minister, economic development professional, small business owner, hospital administrator, county commissioner and radio station owner were all asked what economic development means to them. Their answers shed light on this question from their own perspectives, based upon personal values.

For each of the community leaders and residents, economic development success was first measured in terms of economic indicators such as more jobs, increased retail sales, a larger listening population (radio station owner), and increase in tax base. After that, the impact of this success was vocalized in social and environmental terms. To the local banker, economic development meant additional jobs, resulting in new deposits in the bank which could then be used for mortgages and loans leading to improved housing. To the small business owner, economic development also meant more jobs, resulting in increased retail sales in the downtown area, which then would be used for mortgages and loans leading to improved housing. To the small business owner, economic development also meant more jobs, resulting in increased retail sales in the downtown area, which then would lead to revitalization of the main street and improvement of the community’s self image. The First United Methodist minister saw increased jobs as the way to keep families in Bucyrus and to improve his parishioners’ quality of family life. The county commissioner saw success in terms of the creation of quality jobs in the county. This would provide opportunities for young people so they would not have to go elsewhere to work and could successfully raise their own families in Bucyrus.

From these community leaders’ and residents’ responses a few thoughts emerge. First, they all start with economic measurements to define community success. The creation of new jobs, expansion of the tax base, and increased consumer spending are frequently occurring themes. Second, leaders and residents use these economic measurements to interpret social and environmental benefits. Economic development provides the means to achieving social, economic and environmental benefits. Economic indicators and the ability of the community to reach its social, economic and environmental objectives have for community residents a direct causal relationship. In other words, quality of life in Bucyrus would be improved if certain economic objectives were reached; more jobs would automatically result in improved social and environmental conditions in the community.

This philosophical approach does recognize the important connection between the economy on one hand and society and environment on the other. However, it falls short of the concept of sustainable development for one very important reason: it assumes a strictly causal relationship between economic development and improvements to the environment and society. Causality, as used here, is the belief that improvement of the basic factor will result in an automatic benefit to all other related factors; that if one takes care of the economy, the rest will take care of itself. In contrast, a sustainable development approach reflects the belief that improvement to a community, based first on economic measures, does not necessarily lead to improved social and environmental conditions. The Exxon Valdez oil spill is an example. The spill was of such magnitude that thousands of new jobs were created in the clean-up, consumer spending increased, and the previously distressed regional economy received a major jump start. At the same time, the spill devastated marine wildlife and waterfowl, and the abrupt growth in population created intense social stresses in the region (Hart 1995, 6). In this instance, using economic measurements to gauge success, expecting that positive impacts would automatically follow in the social and environmental arena, would be misleading and provide only a part of the total picture. Sustainable development, in contrast, is built on intentional not causal relationships. A relationship is considered to be intentional when it is characterized by the purposeful design of equitable benefit for each factor in connection to all other factors. Sustainability says that we must be consciously aware of how our actions in one of the three areas--economic, social or environmental--will potentially affect the other two over the long term. We must be multidimensional in our thought and action, aim for balance, and act with intent.

Sustainable Development’s Incremental Changes

Sustainable development takes a holistic approach to building community, and defines success according to the quality of interconnections among the social, environmental and economic aspects of the community. Often the sustainable development movement is misconstrued to be one and the same with environmental activism. This certainly has been the case in the United States. According to Maureen Hart, a nationally recognized expert on sustainable development, sustainability is not really an environmental movement but a community movement (Hart, 1998, p. 114). This distinction is important because it implies that the starting point for sustainability is not solely with environmental concerns, but also rests with social and economic considerations. Most importantly, it rests with the interactions and impacts among these three elements of community.

Sustainable development takes the traditional economic development approach to task in the area of how a community’s well-being is measured. While traditional measurements may focus on one issue, such as the number of new jobs created, sustainable development advocates say that this one-dimensional approach does not shed light on the quality of those jobs or their benefit and cost to the community. According to Hazel Henderson, "...trying to run a complex society on a single indicator like the Gross National Product is literally like trying to fly a 747 with only one gauge on the instrument panel..." (Henderson 1991). Multidimensional indicators of success are used to measure and track the community’s progress toward reaching its vision. From the viewpoint of economic development, sustainability asks two questions at the very beginning: "Economic development toward what end?" And "economic development at what cost?"

Sustainable development calls for a balance among economic, social and environmental goals. This approach contrasts with the traditional economic philosophy of the creation of excess wealth to provide the resources necessary to allow a community to reach its social and environmental goals. "Excess wealth" refers to financial resources available after expending the dollars needed to satisfy the basic needs of residents as individuals. Included are such things as community services, infrastructure, education and transportation. By emphasizing balance, sustainable development recognizes the relationship among these three issues.

Cornerstones of Sustainable Development

The cornerstones of sustainable development are quite different from those inherent in traditional economic development. Because of that difference, the cornerstones clearly separate the two divergent approaches. Cornerstones of sustainable development include:

• Long Range Focus: Sustainable development takes a long-range view of fifty years or even seven generations as a time frame in which to assess success toward reaching community goals. This long-range scope is important because it allows for the more immediate needs of short-range decision making as well as taking into account the concerns and needs of future generations. The long time frame reflects recognition of the need to manage resources so that they will be available for those who follow us to use. These future populations will have the right to make decisions concerning their lives, so for us to eliminate their options by using up natural resources is not sustainable. In comparison, traditional economic development planning, usually accomplished through a strategic planning process, typically uses a time frame no greater than three to five years.

• Interconnections: Sustainable development recognizes the interconnections between economy, society and ecology, realizing that an impact on one area may result in an unintended positive or negative impact in another area. Awareness of these interconnections must be conscious. Sustainable actions must be intentional; considering all impacts on other areas at the beginning to ensure that a benefit to one area will not cause undue hardship in another. Traditional economic development, on the other hand, assumes that a positive impact in one area will result in a positive impact in another, using a monodimensional approach to action. This is called, by the authors, causality.

• Multidimensional Indicators: Sustainable development requires the multidimensional linking of issues (social, ecological, economic) when establishing measures of success, instead of considering only one dimension at a time. Indicators help measure the progress being made on successfully interconnecting the three aspects of sustainability. For an action to be sustainable, it must address an economic and social need or an environmental and economic need simultaneously. Ideally, multidimensional indicators will include all three aspects of sustainable development. Traditional economic development considers the economy first and foremost; effects on other aspects of the community may or may not occur, and may or may not be positive.

• Inclusion: Sustainable development is based on involvement and meaningful participation by all community residents and stakeholders in the process of becoming sustainable. Traditional economic development, on the other hand, typically involves only the leaders and key stakeholders in the community in setting economic goals.

The way we traditionally examine how well our community is doing creates "silos" - self-contained units that may possess depth, but are cut off from and do not consider other aspects of society. For instance, our local chamber of commerce may examine and re-examine our community’s economy, analyzing jobs created, businesses started and expanded, tax dollars captured, industries attracted -- but how this growth affects the neighboring "silo" of environment is not even recognized, let alone considered. And in the area of environment, the controls put on land development, solid waste disposal and environmental regulation may create a situation in which companies see no other option than to move out of the area (or perhaps do not locate here in the first place) and jobs and income are lost, causing many families to slip from gainful employment into poverty. Again, one "silo" is not recognizing or considering what its impact on the adjoining "silo" might be. This division creates community planning processes that are, at best, implemented in isolation and, at worst, work at cross purposes. Sustainable development recognizes the need to dismantle these silos and begin to consider actions in terms of what impact they will have on other areas. The goal then becomes to achieve multidimensionality, recognizing the critical linkages and developing efforts and goals that will impact positively on more than one segment at a time. An example might be the creation of jobs with training for those who are currently unemployed, having an impact both on social and economic aspects of the community. Another example might be to attract an industry to the area that uses by-products (waste) from an already existing industry, exerting an impact on environmental and economic aspects of the community simultaneously. In both of these examples planners, economic development professionals, local leaders and governmental officials are challenged to think and collaborate beyond the bounds of traditional constraints that serve to limit their effectiveness.

Traditional planning for economic development differs greatly from that pursued in sustainable development in a number of meaningful ways. First, traditional planning is most often accomplished through the strategic planning process which uses a much shorter time frame. While sustainable development looks out 25 to 50 years to future generations, strategic planning is much more immediately focused, typically projecting a three- to five-year window. The danger of this limited window is that it may fail to consider the long-range impacts of today’s activities upon our children and children’s children. Resources that are limited may, with a short-term focus, be used rapidly to the point where they become unavailable for future generations. The short-term strategy may be to exploit these resources. While likely to result in short-term gain and prosperity, the long-term impact may be negative due to overreliance, depletion and resulting economic hardship. The coalfields of Appalachia provide an all too familiar example of the danger of using a short-term focus. Generations have relied on coal mining jobs for their livelihoods and the economic well-being of their families. The mines provided some of the highest paying industrial jobs with only a minimal amount of education required. Federal clean-air regulations promulgated during the past decade have reduced the demand for high-sulphur coal, and the reserves of low-sulphur coal that are capable of being mined is diminishing. The coal industry in many Eastern Ohio communities, for example, is expected to all but disappear by the year 2000. The traditional overreliance on coal to keep the local economy healthy has resulted in certain expectations that have kept residents and leaders from looking for alternatives. The short-term health of communities was guaranteed. The short term was often as far as they wanted to look, so they were largely unprepared for the events that were to follow in the 1980s.

The inclusion of diverse groups and individuals in the process of planning and visioning is characteristic of an effective sustainable development process. Traditional economic development efforts have considered the thoughts, desires and visions of the leaders, public officials, business heads, and local power structure. The vision is often developed by this select group and only then shared with the community at large, which the group anticipates will buy in without much reservation. Sustainable development, on the other hand, involves and solicits the participation of diverse groups in the planning process; for example, all ages from school children to the elderly, the dispossessed as well as those more fortunate, all races and ethnic groups, both male and female, and urban as well as rural residents. In an effort to promote as much participation as possible, sustainable development proponents go out to these diverse groups and make it as easy as possible for them to participate, rather than expecting them to converge in a central location at an appointed time. The effort to achieve inclusiveness and diversity is not an easy one. It requires considerable time and effort. However, the time spent at the front end of the visioning and planning process soliciting input and garnering broad-based community support and buy-in may well be much less than that spent later on in an effort to address and counteract public criticism of the directions taken by the select few.

Planning and visioning in the traditional economic development approach is much easier to undertake, at least at the front end. However, its effectiveness over the long haul, in contrast to the more inclusive, comprehensive sustainable development approach, can be called into question. The extra effort and time spent in getting the entire community involved in pursuing goals reached by consensus has proven to be well worth the effort by those communities undertaking sustainable development approaches.

A Sustainable Development Process for the Local Community

The Center of Excellence for Sustainable Development defines sustainable development as "a strategy by which communities seek economic development approaches that also benefit the local environment and quality of life." As mentioned before, communities could mean association of individuals by similar interest as well as communities of place (geographical communities). Our discussion of a sustainable development process will focus on communities of place, recognizing that such communities include numerous communities of association. Sustainable development as a process is much like any other planning and action strategy process, with the addition of some sustainability cornerstones. These cornerstones include:

• A balanced, interconnectional approach to economic, ecological and social issues.

• Thinking about the future in longer terms.

• Inclusionary involvement of community members.

• Creation of multidimensional indicators.

The sustainable development process incrementally changes the method and understandings which previous community planning processes designed. Sustainability involves society’s obligation to the future through the creation of equity. Each community must discover its own understanding of what is just and right. Again, sustainability challenges the residents of a particular community to determine what is just and right within sustainable parameters. In an effort to meet these challenges the community will throughout the sustainable development process discover, articulate and implement its particular ethos.

Max Stackhouse in his book Ethics and The Urban Ethos talks about the concept of ethos. Stackhouse writes about the urban situation in America, particularly the central city experience which seems extremely important in discussions concerning sustainability. Ethos, Stackhouse tells us, is "the subtle web of values, meanings, purposes, expectations, obligations and legitimations that constitutes the operating norms of a culture in relationship to a social entity" (Stackhouse 1972, 5). When the structure is as complex as sustainability, then the task of defining ethos is tremendous. Although Stackhouse is speaking about an urban ethos, his thoughts are still pertinent to the discussion of sustainability, particularly since many individuals see the current urban situation as a challenge to sustainability. Like the urban discussion which Stackhouse is referring to, sustainability finds itself discussed in terms of "three perspectives common in ordinary experience." The first is "personalism which understands ethos according to impact on the self." The second is "morphologism which understands ethos according to the use of space, geographical shapes and population." The third is "naturalism which understands primordial patterns of nature" (Stackhouse 1972, 23).

The personalist sees personal relationships as the center of the discussion of sustainability. These relationships may include the relationship of one person to another, to himself/herself or to the greater social order. The personalist wishes to focus the sustainability discussion on the destructiveness of behaviors and systems which risk the continued enrichment of self. "What the self really is, what it ought to become, how the person is to exist is the dilemma of the personalist" (Stackhouse, 1972, p.31).

The morphologist sees patterns as the key examination to understanding sustainability. The morphologist wishes to focus the discussion on the creation of regenerating structures targeted toward the future as the key to sustainability. At issue are the patterns which provide efficient and harmonious procedures. The morphologist emphasizes the interdependence of the social, economic and environmental issues which demand a transformation to assure sustainability. This transformation usually finds answers by reestablishing patterns natural to humans and sees development as a vocation which improves the destiny of humanity.

The naturalist focuses on the ultimate power of the universe and the human's present behavior as the dominant influence affecting nature. Therefore, the naturalist encourages us to accept a subdominant position since the human situation is best when in harmony with the rest of creation. What we must do, the naturalist believes, is change our values and act in support of what is genuinely natural. The naturalist often discounts the fact that nature is not the only source determining human destiny.

Stackhouse’s three perspectives presented by social theorists relate to Roseland’s four categories of orientation present within sustainable literature. The naturalist perspective is reflected in the activist literature identified by Roseland. The morphologist position is reflected in the designer literature and to some extent the practitioner emphasis. Understanding of the social situation from the personalist perspective is something the visionaries are trying to capture in their sustainability literature. Surely each perspective carries with it a truly valid world view, each necessary to help establish sustainability. Yet when we stand back and observe the three social theorist perspectives, or the four categories of literature, we discover two interesting problems. First, there is a fundamental distortion, in this case of what is sustainable, caused by a world view which while valid is constructed on a restricted basis. Second, an unacknowledged theological commitment is at the core of each theorist's position (Stackhouse 1972, 23). The personalist, the morphologist and the naturalist not only emphasize different aspects of sustainable behavior and targets regarding the way things are but also what ought to be done. Such restrictions result from dealing with parts of the nature of humanity, rather than dealing with the whole of humanity. To be certain sustainability calls for a holistic approach to the world, but this holistic reference is to the way the environment, society and economics interrelate, not to the entire meaning of being human.

There is a need to intertwine in the development of a sustainability process the realization of the community ethos directly through a "peculiar concept of the good future (eschatology) set within a body of people called out and arranged in an organized system (ecclesia)" (Stackhouse, 1972, pp. 142-143). And this has historically been the responsibility of the theological roots of each person. Present within a great deal of the sustainability literature and actions of organizations is the discussion of spirituality. It seems these references are almost after-thoughts. What references appear are often from eastern religions or Native American spirituality. Western religious traditions, particularly the use of "domain over the earth" present within Christian history, are portrayed by the literature as a contributing factor to the abuse of the environment by humans.

This desire to include the spirituality present, but not always affirmed, can be actualized through recognizing the particular community ethos. Sharing our ethos is a difficult and sometimes painful experience for each of us. Our ethos reflects the very spirituality in each of us. For some that spirituality may be rooted in the connection of all living things to the ecology of our planet. For others it lies in the granting of grace from a supreme being. Still others may reflect their spirituality through an understanding of the common good found in all humans. The list of where our spirituality comes from is endless. By its very nature, sustainability calls for inclusion of diverse groups. When we enter this room of diversity, it is difficult to openly share, to effectively listen to another and to not be discounted by those whose spirituality resides in a different source. Yet, the irony of the situation is that for sustainability to be effective it requires the embracing of its ethos into our very being.

Visioning alone will not get us to an ethos; indicators alone will not get us to an ethos. Unfortunately, neither will visioning and indicators together get us to an ethos. Instead, ethos is the foundation for both visioning and measuring. To be certain, building a vision or establishing an indicator provides more comfortable topics for us because we can deal with them objectively. Even though it is difficult and uncomfortable to establish our corporate ethos, we cannot avoid doing so if we are to live sustainably. Otherwise, our sustainable vision will be articulated but not internalized.

Maureen Hart, who works on establishing indicators of sustainability, argues that sustainability is not really an environmental movement, but rather a community movement (Hart 1998, 114). If sustainability truly is a community movement then the community must understand, accept and articulate its underlying ethos. It is within the ethos of a community that the elements of the "good future" are recognized. The eschatology, the peculiar concept of what is the good future, can then be articulated for everyone to participate in by discovering their way towards it. Doing so will allow the community the opportunity to acknowledge an unrestricted worldview of sustainability, to understand what is the good life. Then people can more easily gather to build this idea of the good life into the social structure of their community. No longer do the "natural necessities" and social conventions that were previously in action rule. People will now form the ecclesia mentioned by Stackhouse. People are driven to gather with like-minded people to construct a particular interpretation of this worldview, of this good future. Sustainability calls people to reach across existing and normal limitations in a new form of group activity. It is a new activity that redefines the way business is accomplished, the way the environment is viewed and the way we distribute benefit among people. In other words, it redefines the way we provide equity. Now there is integration between the way the community acts and the way it visions the good future. What is fair and just is captured in the ethos and implemented in the ecclesia, groups of like-minded people.

A sustainable community nourishes its members and is able to continue indefinitely. Change is very much a part of sustainability. To actualize sustainability a community must consistently keep its ethos before the residents. So how does a community express its ethos? By breaking down the components of an ethos into manageable opportunities. Ethos is a subtle web which includes:

• Values - The values of a community can only be shared through discussion. A great deal of work has been accomplished in creating ways of helping individuals and groups clarify their values. Values clarification must be a key component of the building of ethos. People will be nourished as their values are recognized as part of the community.

• Meaning - Although we each must find meaning for ourselves, we still gather around the phrase "What we need is a champion." Meaning, while not created by a champion, is articulated by a champion. How many GI’s in World War II found General Patton a source for bringing out the meaning of what they as individuals were doing? A sustainable community needs to find champions who will stand for and articulate the meaning of sustainability. These champions do not represent any one view of sustainability, but rather the collective wisdom of our community ethos.

• Purpose - Purpose comes from discipline, defined here as "staying the course" day by day. Japanese culture has a concept called "Kaizen" which means to each day do one thing better than we did it the day before. Hart says sustainability continues indefinitely. To think, let alone act indefinitely, requires the discipline embodied within Kaizen. Improving every day demonstrates the reality that change is constant in sustainability.

• Expectations - It is here that the three perspectives discussed by Max Stackhouse are of greatest value. If we view the personalist, the morphologist and the naturalist as antagonists we will have the establishment of expectations. Persons who are so devoted to a particular intensity of view are of little assistance in bringing collaborative action. Yet they are of extreme benefit in raising our levels of expectations, even if we cannot reach utopia. They constantly push us to go places in this discussion and to consider paths that may not have previously entered our awareness.

• Obligation - When we are young, it is our parents who remind us of our obligations. They tell us we must get our studies done, attend worship and even like our siblings. Obligation is something we know, but every so often we need a motivational speech to remind us. Somewhere in the pursuit of sustainability we must deliver a lecture or two to the community about its obligation.

• Legitimation - Our thoughts and beliefs are enhanced as we receive rewards to legitimate what we stand for. Spirituality has a number of rewards. For some it means a better world, for others the continuation of clean air, water, and salmon. Still others look to heaven, or to the fullness of daily life. For us to complete our community ethos we must clearly articulate the rewards of sustainability. The sharing of the rewards of sustainable actions will continue to nourish the community.

Although we can establish ethos through values, meaning, purpose, expectations, obligations, and legitimations, we must still make these our operating norms. What sustainability (sustainable development) calls us to is the creation of internalized operating norms. For something to be an operating norm, it must be reinforced in our daily activities. We therefore must find ways to place before us, on a daily basis, our ethos.

Symbols remind and aid us in daily recognition of and connection to our ethos. This provides the first method for establishing operational norms. A Cross or a Star of David on the front of a structure raises our expectations of what we will find inside. The Presidential Seal tells us about the dignity of the position and golden arches tell us about the restaurant’s menu. The community of Rock Hill, North Carolina captured its vision at the entrance to the community. The community’s vision was captured on four statues which form the corners of the city’s Gateway. Each statue represents through symbols a different theme of the community’s vision. One statue has education (flame of knowledge), another arts and culture (stars of inspiration), a third conveys business (gears of industry) and a fourth statue conveys function (lighting bolts). In addition two Masonic columns represent history, and elaborate landscaping presents the community’s commitment to gardens. The public art project stands as a daily reminder to citizens and public officials of the commitment to the future. What, then are the symbols of sustainability?

Celebration is a second method for establishing operational norms. A Memorial Day parade can tell us about the sacrifices made by others for us. A ticker tape parade can turn loose our passion for winning the World Series. We must also find ways to celebrate as a community our dedication to sustainability.

To get to this subtle web called ethos we must spend time in discussion, find champions, apply discipline, include antagonists, provide motivation, and offer clear rewards. To make this ethos part of our "community being" we must identify and use symbols plus celebrate our awareness and accomplishments. Once we have discovered the community ethos we will have a clear understanding of what equity looks like. The community ethos is not created. The ethos is present within the community. The challenge is to discover and articulate it. And to do that the implementation of a process needs to happen which will establish a community sustainable development approach.

Steps in a Community Process for Sustainability

The process of creating a sustainable development approach involves five steps: developing a governance for the effort; creating a shared community vision, including guiding principles; setting goals and objectives with appropriate indicators; choosing and implementing activities; and evaluating progress and revising activities as necessary.

As mentioned earlier, this process will involve many planning activities used in traditional development efforts. However, the methods used and the criteria for ensuring equity among the economic, ecological and social interests of the community will make this process incrementally more challenging. What appears to be small fine-tuning of planning processes previously enacted by communities will in reality make the decisions of the sustainable process more equitable to the future sustainability of the community. What follows are suggestions on the critical elements of the process which makes it design a strategy which will lead to greater sustainability as defined by the community and its residents.

Step 1: Developing a governance for the process:

A governance structure is the determination of who the sponsoring organizations are and how they plan to participate within the process. The sustainable development process is a collaborative problem-solving process. Collaborative problem solving reflects the belief that all persons or organizations who have authority to make final decisions, are affected by final decisions, or can block the implementation of final decisions, should be included at the planning stage of a development project. The inclusion of people and organizations at the beginning of the process will help them recognize that they are included in the development of the design of the project. This, in turn, will enhance their acceptance of the process. As mentioned earlier in the four cornerstones, the sustainable development process is an inclusionary process. Sustainable development does not assume one organization will take responsibility for implementing and monitoring the sustainable goals of the community. Instead it is recognized and affirmed that it is the entire community that will implement an equitable future. Therefore, the blessing of the process by the organizations which have authority for and are affected by the final decisions is required.

A suggested way to begin this governance effort is to first identify key leaders, motivators and stakeholders in the community. What is being sought are those individuals and organizations that can champion the cause. No one organization should give leadership to the overall effort of building a sustainable community. However, one organization can play the role of beginning the process of establishing a governance for the process. Its role is to bring the identified leaders, motivators and stakeholders together to discuss the purpose of a sustainable development process. Included in this first discussion may be local political jurisdictions like county, city and regional government. Also included may be environmental agencies and organizations, social agencies and organizations, citizen and neighborhood groups, business organizations, health organizations, educational organizations, civil rights groups, agricultural organizations and family groups. Together the participants can design a mission statement based on shared values indicating that real community issues will be addressed. This mission statement can then be taken back to each organization to determine its individual commitment to the process. During this phase the concept of a sustainable planning process should be publicized as a method of identifying organizations missed in the original effort. Participants in the planning process should seek the endorsement, preferably in writing, of their particular organizations. From this effort a core group of individuals representing sponsoring organizations can be established. It will be the responsibility of this core group, task force or steering committee to oversee collaboratively the sustainable development process. The process belongs to the community but still requires some group of individuals to facilitate the activities of the planning process. Once the governance of the sustainable process is created, a name should be established for the process and the core group providing facilitation. Creating a name for the effort will make it easier for media and residents to identify the process and track its progress. For example the effort in Chattanooga, Tennessee called its process Vision 2000. Plans should also be developed for necessary budgets and other resources, including the availability of people’s time and energy. The Chattanooga Vision 2000 effort was successful for many reasons, including the fact that its budget allowed it to carry out the process designed.

The President’s Council on Sustainable Development reviewed a sampling of formal collaborative efforts in sustainability. One of the lessons learned was that collaborative processes often require more financial and human resources than originally realized. Another important lesson points to the need for shared management and decision-making in a collaborative process. When only one stakeholder is perceived to have more control over the process, difficulties may arise. By clearly defining rules for decision-making and the roles of each stakeholder these difficulties will decrease. A consensus decision-making process is very effective in creating ownership. Finally, early in the process ground rules for conflict resolution should be defined (President’s Council on Sustainable Development 1997, 5-6). With ground rules set, shared management of the process, legitimization by organizations and specified roles for stakeholders, the visioning phase of the sustainable development process can begin.

Step 2: Creating a shared community vision:

A strategic vision, according to Chris Carlson, "defines a purpose of the organization which is clearly beyond its logical means. It defines ends to which the purpose of the organization will deliver it, but purposefully deletes the means, forcing creative and outward focused solutions into all parts of the organization" (Carlson, May 1990). Carlson is speaking about organizational visioning, but the same is true for communities. Just substitute the word community for organization.

This second step in the sustainable development process is the actual implementation of a strategic visioning process within the defined community. The goal is to bring the community leaders and residents together to clearly articulate the purposes of the community and define the results of these purposes. The strategic vision should bring together various groups, individuals and organizations through a shared understanding of the future. As Carlson mentions, the community is seeking "creative and outward" focus.

Mark Peterson of the University of Arkansas is known for his work with communities and organizations in strategic visioning. He explains this process by not only saying what it is, but also contrasting it with what it is not. Strategic visioning is not a mission statement, which is a short and descriptive statement of purpose which often becomes a slogan. Strategic visioning is not a plan, which provides steps that tell a community how to get to where it wants to go. It does not seek to identify issues or specific projects that may serve to divide a community by making recommendations that will cause people to begin arguing over the details of actions. Strategic visioning is not a projection of the present or estimate of the future based on current trends and constraints. Instead, strategic visioning for sustainable development needs to be infused into the very soul of the community. It needs to be the ethos of the community. The specific methods of how to get to sustainability should be decided in the daily activities and actions of each individual, group and organization. Strategic visioning does not set specific goals, strategies and projects, but "tells where there is - what the community wants to become" (Peterson, n.d., 11). Finally, strategic visioning seeks to free people from the restraint of the past and to allow them to avoid inaction because of current methods. Sustainable development involves thinking about future generations who will not be constrained by today’s paradigms.

Peterson (6-7) states that there are six elements that must be included in the vision statement in order to make it effective:

1. The Vision Statement must describe how the community serves its citizens, its visitors and the world. The community’s future is dependent upon its members caring for each other.

2. The Vision Statement must be inspiring, compelling, and bold; raising our expectations and our actions to achieve a higher purpose. Visions challenge us and excite our spirit.

3. The Vision Statement must embody our deepest values and give us courage to express those values in our community. Visions reach our deepest feelings about what is right and what we dream.

4. The Vision Statement must be strategic - distinguishing our particular community from the world. People discover a sense of pride because they express what is unique about the community.

5. The Vision Statement must use vivid language, word pictures and metaphors to communicate enthusiasm and excitement.

6. The Vision Statement must be specific, concise and brief. Strategic visions provide a guide for leaders as they determine what actions fit and do not fit within the community.

The creation of a community strategic vision should help a community express its future. It relates each resident to the other and to his or her world. It inspires the community to incorporate its values into the daily life of the community. Most importantly, a strategic vision empowers people to act because there is a clear understanding of where the future is for the people who reside within the community. Also of great value is the fact that vision does not tell the residents what to do, or what the specifics of the future will be. Rather, it encourages residents to use creative abilities to unfold the future. And the future is not defined by the perceived limits of the past and present. Things do not have to be the way they are or always were. New paradigms can emerge limited only by the creative imagination of the residents.

Implementing a Strategic Visioning Process

A traditional strategic visioning process typically asks four questions of the community:

1. What is the history of the community?

2. Where is the community today?

3. Where does the community wish to go?

4. How will the community get to its destiny?

In addition, a fifth question is often asked: How will the community know when its vision has been actualized?

A traditional strategic visioning processes also asks us to think long-term. However, long term is defined as five to ten years. When thought of sustainably, ten years is not a generation let alone the seven generations or eternity that some sustainable organizations would propose.

A third emphasis in traditional strategic visioning is to get a broad-based representation of residents and leaders to participate in the process. What is envisioned is a conscious effort to be certain that all segments of the community are represented in the process. Sustainability efforts push this effort even further by not simply assuring representation by each segment of the community but by actually taking the process to every resident in an inclusionary effort. Instead of asking their representatives for input, the residents themselves are given the opportunity and responsibility to participate.

A sustainable development visioning process incorporates the strengths of strategic visioning while pushing the process to extend the definition of long-term future and adjusting the process to be inclusionary. What is desired in the sustainable visioning process is to discover, articulate and legitimize the community’s ethos.

A model developed in Chattanooga, Tennessee has successfully enhanced the strategic visioning process to create a sustainable visioning effort. Chattanooga created the governance aspect of the sustainable process outlined above under the guidance of Chattanooga Venture. A task force was created which included individuals and organizations that could move ideas and concepts along once the vision was created. Like a traditional visioning process Chattanooga Venture held community meetings to gather ideas and programs from residents, but added a sustainable visioning agenda to the process. First, the meetings were held in various locations throughout the community where people gathered. Instead of asking representatives to come to a central place and plan on behalf of the particular group they represented, the Chattanooga effort actually went out to the residents. Visioning sessions were held in churches, clubs, community centers, wherever people gathered and were comfortable. Instead of asking various communities to come to Chattanooga Venture, Chattanooga Venture went to the neighborhoods. Every concern, every issue raised by an individual was listed. A second way in which Chattanooga expanded traditional strategic visioning was in the area of where to start. Rather than beginning with the history of the community, people were allowed to think about and respond to the third question of strategic visioning; "where does the community wish to go?" Responses by residents were taken back to the facilitators who grouped, but did not remove, the responses of residents. These groupings were taken back to the residents in meetings similar to those in the first round. Residents reviewed the groupings and edited them to make sure nothing was lost.

Chattanooga’s visioning process helped establish three expanded methods for strategic visioning:

Method 1:
If you truly desire to make the process inclusionary, go where people gather. Go directly to the residents and not their representatives.

Method 2:
Start the visioning process by asking where a community wishes to go rather than where it has been.

Method 3:
Although the Chattanooga process did not think out fifty years or seven generations it did ask for a sixteen-year vision. The process began in 1984, and Chattanoogans were asked about their city as they wanted it to be in the year 2000. It is still uncertain exactly how far into the future people can actually think as a group. To go seven generations appears to push the ability of residents to envision their community. People of the last few generations have lived in a world where technology has rapidly changed their lives. It is difficult for them to imagine the world of the Jetsons, but they can think about the world of their grandchildren and great-grandchildren, which fifty years pushes them to do.

Chattanooga went even further in making the vision of its future inclusionary. After the second meeting, clearly worded goals for the future emerged. These goals were displayed and taken again to a place where people gather, a regional shopping mall, during a Vision Fair. Here people learned about the goals and were given the opportunity to do two things. People could select up to three goals of value to them and were also given the opportunity to identify a particular goal that they would volunteer to assist a task force in completing. These working task forces were led by organizations from the overall task force that could move the effort along, but also included residents who volunteered at the Vision Fair. Chattanooga identified forty goals for the future which, when collected together, formed a theme of reclaiming the value of the river and the potential economic advantages of developing the riverfront in an environmentally friendly manner.

Chattanooga provides an excellent example of the power of inclusionary visioning and widespread community commitment to action. By using a sustainable development visioning process, Chattanooga was able to evolve from an example of urban decay to a model of successful economic rebirth and environmental excellence within just over twenty years.

(For detailed information regarding the Chattanooga process see "The Chattanooga Model" in Appendix)

Development of Guiding Principles:

Currently, architect William McDonough (author of the Hannover Principles) is producing a set of "Guiding Principles" for the Chattanooga Initiative. As soon as the principles are announced, these and other groups, including the city and county governments and private industries, will be called upon to set the goals and structure for the initiative based upon these principles and to make a commitment to its implementation. This process will aim to build the support and endorsement necessary to give the initiative the authority to act on many fronts.

A section of the sustainable development process calls for the establishment of principles. These principles serve as a guide to the ideals and choices the particular organization or community is seeking to uphold. While not directly intended as statements of fairness and justice, these statements of guiding principles do echo a standard on which fairness and justice would be based. Guiding principles in many ways reflect in writing the ethos of a community or organization. Within these guiding principles we discover what the community or organization believes are the cultural operating norms that should be reflected within the social entity. For example, when we looked at the four guiding principles of The Natural Step earlier in this piece, we gained a clear picture of how this organization believes the human community should conduct itself within the environment in which we find ourselves.

The four principles help us understand the dedication of The Natural Step movement to help society reduce its impact on the environment and move toward a sustainable future. These statements can assist governments, businesses, organizations and individuals develop a personal operating norm which can assist in making daily decisions about particular choices each must make (for more information on The Natural Step, see the section on History of the Sustainable Development Movement).

A review of various community and organizational guiding principles demonstrates how the concept of sustainable development is at an emerging stage. Some organizational principles are weighted strongly toward environmental values. Others reflect and emphasize social concerns. Still others focus on community processes and the value of education. Each, though, contributes to the desire to discover new methods and priorities to interconnect the social, environmental and economic aspects of the world’s existence. Some Web sites to visit for a sampling of guiding principles include:

Racine, Wisconsin

City of Austin, Texas or http://www.ci.austin.tx.us/smartgrowth/smart_q&a.htm

Mountain Association for Community Development

Center of Excellence for Sustainable Development

Site of U.S. Department of Energy continues links to several organizational guiding principles

Ontario Round Table on Environment and Economy provides suggestions on how to create guiding principles

United Nations Center for Human Settlement: Sustainable Communities Programme

The International Institute for Sustainable Development provides a link to principles around numerous sustainable topics

Some communities have found success in having guiding principles created by the governance body (steering committee). An argument for guiding principles is that they help give the community members a better sense of the purpose and direction of the local sustainable development process. A risk in making such a statement, however, is that it may limit the diversity of ideas which may come from a community. Another approach is to still have the steering committee create the guiding principles, but to do so after the community meets during the visioning process. This will allow for direction set by the community, as well as an opportunity to check these guiding principles at the community vision fair or whatever event gives the residents an opportunity to identify the priorities of the community.

Keys to Successful Sustainable Visioning:

Communities wishing to create a sustainable development vision for their future are encouraged to use the strengths of the traditional strategic visioning process. In addition they are encouraged to enhance these strengths to create a true sustainable development visioning/guiding principles effort by:

• Making the process inclusionary through taking the process to places where residents gather
• Thinking about the future in terms of a fifty-year increment
• Starting the visioning process by asking where the community wants to go rather than where it has been
• Avoiding the creation of specific projects and solutions during the visioning process. Instead create task forces constructed of organizations responsible for the particular part of the vision and add committed volunteers from the residents of the community. Trust these task forces to bring creativity to the particular goal in light of the parameters established by the community vision.
• Developing guiding principles from the community vision. These guiding principles will serve as the beacon, guiding the members of the community. The principles will be a reference for each individual and group as they struggle with the daily decisions necessary to apply their desire to act sustainably.

The President’s Council on Sustainable Development provides some guidance regarding implementation of a sustainable visioning process. From its report "Lessons Learned from Collaborative Approaches," some cautions regarding visioning may prove to be helpful. The following comments regarding the characteristics of the participants reinforce the need to create a comfortable environment in which residents can participate:

The Need for Balanced and Inclusive Stakeholder Participation: Ultimately the real stakeholders of a sustainable community are the residents of the community and the organizations which implement sustainable activities and behaviors. Balance, the council’s report reminds us, refers to the perspectives and interests that are brought to the collaboration (President’s Council on Sustainable Development 1994, 6). Inclusivity refers to the openness and reach of the invitation to participate (6). Balance and inclusivity are the reasons for taking the process to the residents rather than asking the representatives to come to the process. Every effort must be made to make it as easy as possible for those interested in participating to be able to do so. The second lesson learned from the council’s review helps to strengthen this point.

Create Capacity for Stakeholders to Understand Information: Not all members of the process will come to the collaboration with the same knowledge or experience. When individuals do not understand the information that other participants take for granted, these individuals will feel left out, and feeling left out may lead to their dropping out. Of particular significance is the fact that the council says that the issue of being left out most often arises for citizens, public interest organizations and small business owners (President’s Council, 6). It is these very people and groups that the sustainable development effort most relies upon. It is these citizens who hold their public and private sector leaders accountable to implement sustainable practices. Public-interest organizations can act as antagonists, pushing leadership to think and act sustainably. In addition these persons and groups act as creative resources for testing and building new sustainable practices. Small business owners, for example, are said to create eighty percent of the new jobs in America. Asking these key stakeholders about their concepts of what their community should and can be will include them as knowledgeable and experienced partners. After all, who has greater experience and knowledge regarding the unfair distribution of this nation's wealth than those who daily must find ways to survive it?

Step 3: Setting goals and objectives with appropriate indicators

Now that the community has a vision of an equitable future for the community and has begun listing some goals through the strategic visioning process it is time for individual task forces to begin work. At this stage of the sustainable development process some general goals should exist, with specific task forces assigned to each of the goals. The task forces should be led by organizations who traditionally work on the topic, plus community residents who volunteered through the vision-setting activity. These task forces should meet to refine the goals into specific action plans. The action plan should answer the following questions:

• What is going to be done?
• Who is going to do it?
• What resources exist to carry out the action?
• What resources are needed?
• When will the project be completed?

These questions reflect a very traditional method of setting goals and objectives, plus developing a schedule for action. What carries these activities into a sustainable development approach is adding the element of setting indicators. An understanding of what indicators look like and how they are used is essential to gaining an understanding of sustainable development and how it becomes operational at the community level.

Indicators are powerful tools in that they provide a tangible way of measuring progress, and they also clearly suggest the kind of information that needs to be looked at and monitored. It is also important to understand that indicators are not intended to be so rigid that they provide mandates for specific actions or policies. They can change over time as a community moves closer to achieving its goals and as the technology and policy options that can be brought to bear in addressing certain needs are advanced.

An advantage of using indicators is that they provide a way of making complex systems more understandable by those they are intended to serve, that is, community residents. Effective indicators help a community to determine where it is, where it is going, when it is getting off track, and how far it has to go until it reaches its goals. And indicators do it in a way that is perceptible and useful to community members. Some advocates describe indicators as highway signs and mile markers on the road to achieving community vision and sustainability. They provide a way for a community to ask, "how much," or "how many," "to what extent," or "what size." Indicators help to establish a baseline of where the community is in the present so that they know whether or not they are progressing or regressing on a particular measurement. The indicator itself will help to identify the type of baseline data that need to be gathered. Indicators help to set a direction for the community because they are supportive of, and directly tied to, overall goals and a community vision. And finally, they help to provide parameters within which the community can operate in order to achieve its goals.

The extent and manner in which indicators are relied on to track progress is uniquely accomplished through sustainable development. Sustainable development becomes different than traditional development when we create multidimensional indicators to monitor and direct a communities progress.

It is important to understand the difference between a single-dimensional indicator and a multidimensional indicator. A multidimensional indicator identifies the interconnectedness of the economic, social and environmental aspects of any goal or objective. The single-dimensional indicator simply measures one of the three components of sustainability: economic, environmental or social factors. A multidimensional measure incorporates two or three components of sustainability. For example, a traditional single-dimensional indicator is the amount of water a community uses. The indicator simply tells an economic fact. Based on this single-dimensional indicator, a community does not have enough guidance or information to make a decision regarding depleted water reserves. There could be a lot of solutions such as charging more for the water, putting daily limits on each user and finding more water. A multidimensional indicator, in this case a two-dimensional indicator, would be amount of water used per day per person compared to amount of water available. The economic question of amount of water is now contrasted with the environmental question of water sources and capacity. If a community added its anticipated growth to this chart, a future trend would be observed. Now more choices are added to the discussion, such as decreasing the amount of water used, limiting the population growth, limiting growth by large users. Multidimensional indicators are, like so much of sustainable development approaches, still being researched.

Maureen Hart, one of the leading theorists on sustainable development in the United States, has written extensively on ways to arrive at effective measurements and indicators of sustainability. In the "Guide to Sustainable Community Indicators," Hart provides standards by which indicators can be ranked. According to Hart, a good indicator meets certain criteria, as follows:

• Multidimensionality:
  Indicators must be multidimensional measurements, linking elements from at least two of the three categories of social, environmental and economic factors. An example would be an indicator that linked a social measurement, such as education, with an economic measurement. An indicator that mixes these two types of measurements might be the statement that increased numbers of two-year degrees (social measurement) will lead to greater income and more job security (economic measurement). Another example is the indicator that the preservation or creation of wetlands (environmental) will provide aesthetic and recreational opportunities for area residents (social).

• Long-term Focus:
  Indicators should have a focus of twenty to fifty years. This is in recognition that long-lasting, positive changes to the environment, economy and social well-being of a community can take a long time to achieve. It also recognizes that sustainability considers the fortunes of future generations, not just the needs of those with us presently. It is interesting to realize that some cultures, such as Native Americans, consider the impact of decisions made today on the next seven generations.

• Identification of Problems and Solutions:
  Instead of just identifying the problems that need to be corrected, effective indicators also need to identify solutions. They should tie into the situation that needs to be corrected and the actions that should be taken to correct it. In this way, indicators can directly link the course of action to the problem it is designed to address.

• Identification of Underlying Problems:
  Effective indicators seek to identify problems that may be causing other problems. Sustainable development theory is built on the recognition that the economy, environment and social well-being of a community are inextricably linked and interconnected. Problems in one area, or even successful efforts in one area, may cause unintended problems in another. An example might be the number of families in the community who have adequate income linked to those families with satisfactory child-care arrangements. Those families without adequate income may not be able to secure convenient or safe child care that provides them the freedom to pursue gainful employment. The problems that are underlying, in this case the lack of jobs providing adequate income, need to be rooted out and analyzed so that by planning a course of action to correct them, positive benefits occur in other areas as well.

• Diversity:
  Indicators must measure progress toward meeting goals in terms of all community residents, including those who are low income, young, elderly, racial and ethnic minorities, etc. Sustainable development should seek to address the need of the traditionally disposed, not just the stakeholders and leaders.

• Amount of Resources Consumed and Impact of this Consumption:
  Effective indicators consider not only the amount of resources that are consumed but also the impact of this consumption.

• Easily Understandable:
  Since indicators are intended for use by all community residents, it is essential that they be written in such a way that they are straightforward and easy to understand. If written properly, they can help to make very complicated and complex situations understandable to the community. It is hard for people to endorse something they do not understand, and sustainable development requires widespread buy-in, involvement and commitment in order to be successful.

• Locally Responsive and Globally Responsible:
  Effective indicators are designed to address goals and vision at the local level. However, they should not improve the local environment, economy or social well-being at the expense of other communities, the region or the world. The mantra during the 1970s became for many "Think Globally, Act Locally." Sustainable development must be implemented at the grassroots level, but communities must be aware when implementing it that they are part of, and have a responsibility to the larger world. What they do in their community to achieve sustainability must recognize this interconnection.

It would be useful to look at some examples of indicators better to understand how these criteria go into the formulation of a good indicator. The following indicators are taken from the President’s Council for Sustainable Development and relate to national goals:

Suggested Process for Developing Community Indicators

To create indicators for a particular goal from the community visioning report each task force should:

1. Think about the interconnections (linkages) between the environmental, economic and social issues of the goal or activity.

2. Think about what is trying to be accomplished (the end goal).

3. Building on items 1 and 2, think about what specific items need to be monitored to measure the level of sustainability.

An example may help. Many communities focus on the creation of new businesses in the community, particularly attraction of industry. They will apply single-dimensional indicators, such as jobs created, to measure the effectiveness of their development effort. There is usually an underlying assumption that such activity will lead to increased incomes for individuals, additional revenues for school systems and no loss of agricultural productivity. The interconnections between industrial attraction are increased wages and family incomes (economic) with increased school revenues (social) and no change in agricultural practices (environmental).

Some examples of sustainable development indicators are "the creation of new business which increase the current wage level of area workers" (two-dimensional; linking social and economic indicators), and "the creation of new businesses on agricultural land with lower than average productivity which will create jobs paying higher than median wage levels and increase school tax revenues" (three dimensional; linking social, economic and environmental indicators).

Creating multidimensional indicators in a single statement may be very difficult. Another approach is to group single-dimensional indicators to measure progress on goals. Using our example of industrial attraction, one may build a sustainable indicator that looks like this:

Create industrial operations which

1. Increase property tax revenues for the local school district in excess of additional costs for increased student load

2. Increase median income level for area families

3. Locate or expand on abandoned industry zoned property

4. Do not decrease the current acreage of agricultural operations in excess of 3% over the next fifty years

5. Find sixty percent of their employees from within the area

Communities should be aware that there may be dangers in focusing too intently on measurement and indicators, because they may forget the larger picture. Using indicators without first taking the time to reach a community vision and without first identifying goals that will lead to this vision is not likely to be effective in moving the community forward. As Casey Stengel once said, "If you don’t know where you’re going, you might wind up someplace else." Maureen Hart cautions that although we all usually measure our progress toward our chosen goal, focusing too intently on the measurement itself may cause us to forget the goal and be concerned only with the indicator. According to Hart, "measurement then becomes more important than the goal and we start to define ourselves in terms of what we measure, not (in terms of) what we want to be" (Hart 1998).

(For an example of one community’s progress using sustainable indicators see "The Effectiveness of Indicators to Measure Progress: The Sustainable Seattle Story" in the Appendix).

Step 4: Choose and implement activities

The fourth step in a sustainable development process is to choose and implement activities which will lead to a sustainable future. Once task forces complete their individual goal setting and creation of indicators the core group created during the governance step should organize the activities based on a projection of time necessary for implementation. This will help the community understand the relationship between each goal and set a theme for the community. Chattanooga, for example, created a riverfront theme and first chose to work on funding for an aquarium to set the image of the community’s understanding of sustainable future. The core group should also publicize the results of the task force efforts and the overall plan to assure residents' understanding and continued acceptance of the effort. It may be helpful for individual core group members to hold meetings or focus groups with their particular organization and additional organizations to gain feedback before finalizing a plan.

Step 5: Evaluate progress and revise activities as necessary

The final step in the sustainable development process is to monitor the community's progress toward its vision of a sustainable future. The responsibility of evaluation should be assigned to a particular group. The core group that guided the entire sustainable development process could do this, or the task could be assigned to an existing public or nonprofit organization. A third choice is to create a separately funded organization to fulfill this responsibility. Whatever method is chosen, the monitoring is an extremely important phase to assure that the community is achieving its definition of sustainability.

The purpose of evaluating a community’s progress toward sustainability is to constantly know, at any given point in time, if the community is continuing on the right track as defined by the agreed upon vision and goals. When appropriate, changes should be made in areas that are not contributing to the overall vision set by the community. If evaluation indicates that something is not working as envisioned, it can be further examined and improved. The need to evaluate progress should be understood throughout all other areas of the sustainability process so that it is not "layered on" at the end but instead is incorporated throughout all components of the process.

When developing indicators of sustainability, at a minimum the evaluation of progress and identification of data sources should be addressed at the same time. For instance, an indicator may be developed that links social, economic and health issues, as follows: Number of low birth weight babies born to low and moderate income mothers. This indicator may be important to a community because this has become an issue of concern because this population is on the rise, creating stress on the local health care system and leading to poorer quality of life for area residents. At the same time the indicator is developed, how it will be measured (number of low birth weight babies, income level of the mothers, etc.) and the sources of data that will be used (local hospital records, County Health Department, social services) should also be identified. A plan by which progress toward meeting the stated goals can be evaluated becomes part of the development of the indicator. So the process of incorporating evaluation would be:

1. Identifying the links to the particular goal determined by the chosen indicators (social/economic/environmental)

2. Identifying sources of data (type, location, source) to help in measurement

3. Developing a plan to gather and analyze data

4. Determining how efforts will be "tweaked" if they appear to be off-track when evaluated

Data sources will need to be tracked consistently, and ongoing trends should be established. Social services, health agencies and other sources of data at the local, state and federal level can be used to evaluate program progress and to refocus efforts if they seem to be going off track.

Local agencies usually are involved in collecting data on their customers, so it may not be a stretch to work with them to collect the kind of data that will help in evaluation.

Also at some point in the future, perhaps ten to fifteen years, the core group may want to hold a strategic visioning process again to adjust the definition of a sustainable future. Each task force will also want to periodically re-examine their indicators and adjust them to reflect understanding of creating equity in the community.

There are some good sources of information on how to evaluate the progress of sustainable development efforts, including:

Assessing Sustainable Development: Principles in Practice
The International Institute for Sustainable Development, 1997
Editors: Peter Hardi and Terrence Zdan
(This is a report on the Bellagio Principles for Assessment)

Sustainable Community Indicators: Trainers’ Workshop
Hart Environmental Data
Maureen Hart

A Planners Guide to Sustainable Development
American Planning Association
Kevin J. Krizek and Joe Power

Guide to Sustainable Community Indicators
Atlantic Center for the Environment
Maureen Hart

See the following chart:

Summary

Joseph Campbell, who spent a lifetime helping us to appreciate and understand the myths which form the literature of our spirit, shares his insights regarding the development of Salt Lake City, Utah. Campbell uses the architecture of the city to emphasize where we as a society place our values and priorities. He shares that when Salt Lake City was first settled, the community constructed its temple as the tallest building in the community. The temple became what first attracted people's attention as they entered the city. It signified the prominence of religion within the community. Then as Utah became a state, the capital was soon built near the temple, placed on a hillside which made the capital building higher than the temple. This signified the societal changes by designating the prominence of government with the community. Finally, well into this century, buildings of commerce and economics were constructed around and near the capital and the temple. These skyscrapers towered over the capital or temple. Now when people approach the city of Salt Lake, it is the power of the financial world reflected in the community’s architecture. This signifies society's change to the prominence of economics within community. Campbell's insights regarding the prominence of buildings as symbols of what is important to our community and society reflect the challenges facing a sustainable approach to development (Campbell, 1988).

Economic issues are very powerful within today’s world. Sustainability calls for a recognition that the social issues represented by our community's structures of governance, the environmental issues that are represented by the land we choose to build these structures on and natural surroundings which we use to enhance the beauty of these structures all provide an integral part of our future. A sustainable future depends on our ability to bring a fairness to the interconnectedness of the environment, economic and social components of life. Sustainability strives to bring an equity not just between these three components of life, but also between existing generations and future generations. To achieve this equity sustainability also asks us to think about our actions in longer terms, pushing our thinking out for fifty years or even forever.

Sustainable development is designing new approaches for communities to think sustainably. We are being asked to be more intentional about our decisions, particularly economic decisions, rather than assuming a causal relationship between the economy, the environment and our societal values. Visioning and the establishment of indicators for measuring advancement are necessary and powerful ingredients in the transition from causal to intentional. Sustainability calls for the inclusion of the entire community in determining the collective ideal of the future. Communities are also being asked to set measurements which reflect the balance desired between environmental, social and economic goals. What sustainability actually challenges communities to do is rethink and affirm their community ethos which provides the substance of acceptance necessary to internalize a long-term commitment to action. A vision which does not reflect the ethos present within the community will be as nonsustainable as growth created solely through economic actions. Only those people who make up a particular community can establish, interpret and validate the present ethos. The ethos is simply a reflection of the community's spirit. Ethos is necessary as a framework through which causal relationships between the economy, society and environment can be left behind and intentionality can be embraced. Eight ways to assist a community to establish, interpret and validate its ethos have been suggested. A great deal more remains to be publicly discussed regarding this topic. For now it is imperative to recognize the important contribution of ethos to the sustainable development effort.

Numerous organizations and individuals are participating in the creation of sustainable development. The number of Web pages constructed by organizations devoted to sustainable development agendas is amazing. The breath of the knowledge a person can gain from each of these Web pages is even more amazing. There are those organizations and individuals who wish to design new methods to more efficiently use the world’s resources. There are those who wish to focus on the processes necessary to change the values and priorities regarding the way we make choices each day. Still others feel that the clock is ticking much too fast on the amount of abuse the environment can withstand. They ask for new policies and behaviors which will place ecological issues in the forefront. There is still another approach to sustainability by those who seek leadership from public bodies in bringing about change. The sustainable movement has developed interest at a local level with communities such as Seattle Racine and Austin developing sustainable initiatives. It has also developed interest at the national level with the creation of sustainable initiatives by President Clinton and agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency. Sustainability is an international topic with the creation of key initiatives by the United Nations. Within this richness of interest and activity for sustainability there remains a confusion regarding what actions to take, what sustainability really means and how to think about the future.

At a recent conference on sustainability participants were trying to write a statement about what sustainability really means. Elected officials from state government spoke about what the legislative branch was doing for sustainability. Citizens groups called for a reduction in population and the removal of all practices and materials that led to generations of waste. Nonprofit organizations asked for support of their initiatives and a focus on creating federal policy for sustainable practices. The more people talked the further the group got from a shared definition. The facilitator tried various methods to reach consensus only to be denied acceptance at each effort. In a rare moment when the group was quiet a young man in the back of the room stood and with a nervous voice spoke. He said he was there to represent all those like him who had no voice, no opportunity to speak in public arenas like this. He said the solution lies within him and those like him who are trying to change the way they live daily, right on the little piece of the earth where they were placed. He needed to adopt sustainable methods and live a simpler life, placing the needs of the earth before his. When he was finished he sat down just as nervously as he stood and spoke. After a second of silence the group and its facilitator went on to discuss their last written concept. Who knows if the young man was right? Who knows if whatever statement the group designed with the few people still left in the room, is right? When I think of that day, however, and the words that young man struggled to get out, I think of something Joseph Campbell once said to his students, "If you really want to help this world, what you have to teach is how to live in it." (Campbell, 1988). While sustainability requires each of us to act sustainably in our daily lives, there is also a need for residents, leaders and business owners to come together and express the community ethos that directs our actions into the future of generations we will never know.

(For a list of Web sites regarding sustainable development topics please refer to the Appendix)

Bibliography

Brown, L. (Annual). State of the World. New York: W.W. Norton.

Carlson, Chris. "Creating a Strategic Vision." Western City Magazine. League of California Cities, May 1990.

Cobb, John B. Jr. (1992). Sustainability: Economics, Ecology and Justice. New York: Orbis Books.

Dale, A., & Robinson, B. (Eds.) (1996). Achieving Sustainable Development. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.

Daly, H. (1996). Beyond Growth: The Economics of Sustainable Development. Boston: Mifflin Press.

Daly, H. & Cobb, J. Jr. (1989). For the Common Good: Redirecting the Economy Toward Community, the Environment and a Sustainable Future. Boston: Beacon Press.

Davis, T. (No date given). What is Sustainable Development? Keshena, Wisc.: Menominee Nation Web Site.

Flora, C. "Social Capital and Sustainability: Agriculture and Communities in the Great Plains and the Corn Belt" Research and Rural Sociology and Development: A Research Annual, Vol. 6, 1995.

Flora, C.B., Flora, J.L., Spears, J.D., & Swanson, L.E. (1992). Rural communities: Legacy and change. Boulder, Col.: Westview Press.

Flowers, B.S. (Ed.) (1988). The Power of Myth. New York: Doubleday.

Frankel, C. (1998). In Earth’s Company: Business, Environment and the Challenge of Sustainability. Gabriola Island BC: New Society Publishers.

Gonzalez, P. (1998). Learning From the Earth: Key to Sustainable Development. Ecology and Religion: Scientists Speak, Franciscan Press.

Grunkemeyer, W. (1997 & 1998). Participant Profile Summary: Ohio Economic Development Course (participant survey). Columbus: Ohio State University, Extension Community Development.

Hardi, P. & Zdan, T. (eds.) (1997). Assessing Sustainable Development: Principles in Practice. Winnipeg, Manitoba: International Institute for Sustainable Development.

Hart, M. (1995). Guide to Sustainable Community Indicators. Ipswich, MA.: QLF/Atlantic Center for the Environment.

Hart, M. (1998). Sustainable Community Indicators: Trainer’s Workshop. North Andover MA.: USEPA Office of Sustainable Ecosystems and Communities and the Lowell Center for Sustainable Production at the University of Massachusetts.

Hawken, P. (1993). The Ecology of Commerce: A Declaration of Sustainability. New York, NY: Harper Business.

Hawken, P., Lovins, A., & Lovins, H. (1998). Natural Capitalism: The Next Industrial Revolution. Boston: Little Brown.

Henderson, H. (1996). Building a Win-Win World. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.

Henderson, H. (1991). Paradigms in Progress: Life Beyond Economics. Indianapolis: Knowledge Systems.

Konner, J. (Executive Producer) (1988). The Power of Myth: Interview of Joseph Campbell by Bill Moyer. New York: Mystic Fire Video, Inc.

Kraybill, D. (Director) (1995). What Does Economic Development Mean to You: Bucyrus, Ohio (Video). (Available from Ohio State University Extension, Community Development, 700 Ackerman Road, Suite 235, Columbus, Ohio, 43202.)

Krizek, K. & Power, J. (1996). A Planner’s Guide to Sustainable Development. Chicago, Ill.: American Planning Association.

Milbrath, L.W. (1989). Envisioning a Sustainable Society: Learning our Way Out. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Peterson, M. (No date given). Harnessing the Power of Vision: Ten Steps to Creating a Strategic Vision and Action Plan for Your Community. Little Rock, University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service.

President’s Council on Sustainable Development (1994). A Vision for a Sustainable U.S. and Principles of Sustainable Development. Washington, D.C.: President’s Council on Sustainable Development.

President’s Council on Sustainable Development (1996). Sustainable America: A New Consensus. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Rohrer, J., Heimlich, J., and Castro, M. (1996). Competency Profile of the Economic Development Specialist in Ohio (Dacum). Columbus: Ohio State University, Extension Community Development.

Roseland, M. (1992). Toward Sustainable Communities: A Resource Book for Municipal and Local Governments. Ottawa, Ontario: National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy.

Roseland, M. (1994). Sustainable Communities: An Examination of the Literature. Ottawa, Ontario: National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy.

Solow, R. M. "Sustainability: Our Debt to the Future." USA Today, September 1992.

Stackhouse, M.L. (1972). Ethics and the Urban Ethos: An Essay in Social Theory and Theological Reconstruction. Boston: Beacon Press.

Sustainable Seattle (1993). Indicators of Sustainable Community. Seattle, Wash.: Metrocenter YMCA.

Thurow, L.C. (1996). The Future of Capitalism. New York: William Morrow.

University of Texas, Houston (n.d.). Sustainability is a Journey, not a Destination. Houston: The University of Texas, Health Science Center.

US EPA Office of Sustainable Ecosystems and Communities (OSEC) (1998). Sustainable Community Indicators Trainer’s Workshop.

Walljasper, J. "Chattanooga Chooses." Utne Reader, March/April 1994.

World Commission on Environment and Development (1987). Our Common Future. New York: Oxford University Press.

Appendix

The Chattanooga Model

Chattanooga, Tennessee provides an excellent example of the power of inclusionary visioning and widespread community commitment to action. Using sustainability and environmental improvement as the vision of its future, Chattanooga was able to evolve from an all-too-common example of urban decay to a model of successful economic rebirth and environmental excellence within just over twenty years.

Vision 2000

In 1969 Chattanooga was identified by the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare as "the worst polluted city" in America. The once vibrant downtown business district was in serious decline due to businesses and shoppers leaving the area. Inner-city schools were in decline, crime was on the increase, the city’s housing stock was badly deteriorating, and local factories were laying off workers. Compounding the economic and infrastructure problems was the widening gulf between those who lived in the wealthy hills surrounding Chattanooga and those who lived in the distressed neighborhoods below, and the widening gulf and resulting mistrust between the races. In the 1970s Chattanooga was in serious decline and division, and many residents felt a intense sense of hopelessness.

Finally, in the early 1980s, the local chamber of commerce initiated Chattanooga Venture to attempt to stem the city’s decline, determine solutions to its problems, and set a broadly supported direction for the future. Patterned after The Greater Indianapolis Progress Committee, a successful civic involvement program in Indianapolis, Indiana, Chattanooga Venture secured funding for its plan from the Lyndhurst Foundation, a locally based entity operated by heirs to the Coca-Cola fortune. This led in 1984 to the beginning of a broad-based participatory process known as Vision 2000, the objective of which was to bring together as many diverse groups and as many individuals as possible to set a course for Chattanooga’s future.

During the four-month period of time after Vision 2000 commenced, more than 1,700 Chattanooga residents participated in community meetings and interviews that resulted in a combining of the city’s needs into six major areas: Work, Play, Places, People, Government and Future Alternatives. Forty separate goals were chosen for accomplishment by the year 2000. Vision 2000 addressed a broad range of concerns including housing, economic development, health care, crime, recreation facilities and historic preservation. Specific initiatives included improvements in public transportation, improvement in self-image, downtown revitalization, the creation of new jobs, and helping the city to become a regional cultural and tourism center. The Commitment Portfolio emerging from the citizen participation process became the basis of the city’s agenda. Various citizen task forces were formed to implement the various initiatives. They received support and guidance from Chattanooga Venture in carrying out their activities. Six months after Vision 2000 issued its Commitment Profile, the governor of Tennessee committed $9 million in state money to assist in the development of the capital projects. The total amount of money leveraged, with public dollars spurring private investments, amounted to more than $739 million. In addition to the 35 major projects chosen, many smaller, volunteer supported efforts were launched by Vision 2000. These included the establishment of day-care centers, shelters for victims of family violence, and local arts programs. There were 223 projects in all. Neighborhood Network, an organization designed to assist neighborhood businesses and other economic development projects under the Commitment Portfolio, helped to create 1,300 new jobs for Chattanooga residents.

The Chattanooga process was unique and effective for a number of important reasons. Most communities share the experience of attempting to solicit public input, oftentimes as required by federal and state funding agencies, only to be discouraged when less than a handful of citizens show up at a meeting to lend input to local plans. Then, six months later, opposition to the project emerges and is vocal and widespread. Chattanooga addressed this traditional problem by bringing the process to the people and by engaging citizens in efforts to implement projects in support of overall goals. Initial input solicitation, which took place over a four-month period, took place through informal brainstorming sessions held in locations both convenient to the public and designed to access people and groups not usually likely to participate in such a process. The organizers discovered an added unintended benefit to these meetings; in addition to coming away with an idea of the projects and goals that the community wanted to pursue, and an invigorated cadre of citizens who were willing to volunteer in their pursuit, the actual process of these brainstorming sessions helped participants to develop group decision-making abilities and personal conflict-resolution techniques. In other words, in the process of offering and debating goals for their community, they also learned and adopted interpersonal skills that would help them to be more knowledgeable and effective as involved and engaged citizens.

Once a list of possible projects emerged through the public-input process, a smaller group of Chattanooga Venture staff combined the myriad projects into more discrete categories. They were then taken out for further input and brought back to the small group for further refinement. This "back and forth" procedure; soliciting input, refining it and then taking it back to the public for concurrence, was used throughout Vision 2000. Once the final list of projects was generated and ready for final public review, Chattanooga used a very effective method of soliciting response and commitment to action. It posted the projects on large boards that were displayed at a place where many Chattanooga residents shopped and visited: the downtown mall. Residents were encouraged to vote for the project that they wanted to see implemented. If they were willing to volunteer to help bring it about, there was a method provided for them to indicate their interest. This strategy helped the city reach concurrence on projects to pursue at the same time that it identified a cadre of volunteers to work on them. Finally, projects that were proposed but may not have garnered sufficient support to be one of the community wide goals were not dropped. Community residents with an intense desire to pursue a particular issue or project were encouraged to do so. So although Chattanooga identified 40 major community goals/projects, there were hundreds of additional projects, also supportive of overall community goals, that were undertaken by interested individuals and groups in the community.

By 1991, 24 of the originally established list of 40 community-generated goals had been either partially or totally completed.

ReVision 2000

In recognition of the importance of continuing to solicit resident input and energy, Chattanooga’s planning and visioning process has been ongoing. In 1993 the city and Chattanooga Venture once again launched a major citizen engagement effort, expanding the process to encompass not only the city but also Hamilton County. Known as ReVision 2000, this expanded visioning process laid out two goals; to assess the community’s progress toward reaching the goals established through Vision 2000 and to gain public input in establishing new goals. More than 2,600 persons participated in the public meetings that were held throughout the city and county. The results of the process were the identification of 27 new goals and consensus that Chattanooga would become the nationally recognized model for environmental improvement. This vision was further refined throughout the following year, and by 1994 it had become a "sustainable community in which people choose to live, work, and raise their families" (City of Chattanooga 1994).

Lessons Learned

In 1994 the City of Chattanooga outlined to the President’s Council on Sustainable Development key lessons learned from its 25-year visioning and community-action process. These lessons, captured in its Information Book, include:

• Community-wide participation: Implementing a process that involves and educates the public in decision making and community planning is critical in creating a culture supportive of sustainable development.

• Interrelated systems: Chattanooga recognized the linkages and interconnections between the social, economic and environmental aspects of the community. For this reason it made a conscious decision not to select a few items as community priorities, but rather to leave open an entire realm of possibilities.

• Balance between vision and action: It is important to identify projects that involve people immediately and to produce visible results in balance with the establishment of long-term goals that may take some time to complete.

• Public/private collaboration: In order to be successful, Chattanooga sought support and action from both the private and public sectors in the formulation and implementation of goals. It found that bold ideas with broad-based community support were most likely to attract the public/private support and mechanisms needed to achieve results.

• Asset-based development: Chattanooga came to believe that sustainable development must be based on the strengths of the community. During the visioning process city and county residents identified and built upon what they identified as the area's two greatest strengths: the generosity of its people and its natural beauty.

• Positive working solutions: Chattanooga believed that the solutions to its problems already existed, either locally or in other places. It found that a positive attitude toward change could be harnessed by finding and building on these positive workable solutions.
  
  (Krizek and Power 1996, 43)

The lessons learned from Chattanooga’s successful experience in community visioning add much to the identification and understanding of the elements necessary to develop a sustainable development consciousness at the local level. Chattanooga found that the cornerstones of sustainable development -- inclusiveness, long-range focus, awareness of the interconnections between society, economy and ecology, and the need to address goals in a multidimensional manner--when effectively promoted are powerful even in turning around a community suffering from decades of decline.

The Effectiveness of Indicators to Measure Progress: The Sustainable Seattle Story

Our goal in presenting these indicators is to alert the people of Seattle to the significant challenges we face, and to ask them to get involved in finding solutions to our problems. We hope to inspire a renewed sense of citizenship and participation. These problems are only insurmountable if we fail to respond to them with courage, creativity, and compassion. With all of us working together--committed to a better future for our children, and our children's children--we can create a truly sustainable Seattle.
1993 Indicators of Sustainable Community

The effectiveness of using indicators to measure progress toward meeting a community’s sustainable development goals and vision is perhaps best seen through the successful experiences of a city such as Seattle, Washington. Seattle’s venture into the world of sustainability through the development of indicators, and the resulting progress that it has made toward meeting its goals, has attracted national acclaim.

It may seem that Seattle, with its recognizable assets and urban livability, is a questionable candidate for the rigors of the sustainable development process. Other cities, such as Chattanooga, Tennessee, embraced sustainability in response to environmental problems and progressive urban decay. Seattle, a city of 500,000 has, on the other hand, been long recognized as one of the most desirable places to live in the United States. The natural beauty of its surroundings, with ample waterways and the nearby Cascade Mountains, have attracted many residents, as has the health of its local economy through the support of such innovative and high-tech companies as Microsoft, Starbucks, Boeing, and AT&T Cellular Communications. Seattle is also unique among cities in its history and support of active civic engagement. Citizens of the area enjoy a sense of community, a feeling too often a rarity today in our urban areas.

But even Seattle is not without its problems. The irony is that some of these problems, certainly the ones currently encountered, are in great part related to Seattle’s desirability as a place to live. The two prominent problems are traffic congestion and sprawl. The city’s traffic problems are ranked among those worst in the nation, and undeveloped lands adjacent to the city are being taken for residential housing at a rapid rate. The city began to recognize that these trends were leading to lifestyles and resource usage that were not sustainable over the long haul.

While Chattanooga’s venture into sustainability was launched by the Chamber of Commerce with support from a locally-based foundation, Seattle’s effort began through a local nonprofit group known as Sustainable Seattle. The original impetus for this group, as well as the idea of using indicators, stemmed from a conference sponsored by the Global Tomorrow Coalition and held in 1990. The now-defunct Washington D.C. based-organization held a one-day conference in Seattle on the topic of sustainability. Fifteen attendees decided to learn more about sustainability and explore its applicability to the Seattle area (today Sustainable Seattle has 75 active participants and over 300 members). By 1991, 30 members of Sustainable Seattle made a personal commitment of time to develop a series of indicators that would be useful in measuring the health of the city.

Sustainable Seattle’s Process

The first step Sustainable Seattle undertook was the development of an organizational mission statement and establishment of goals. The resulting group mission after six months of work by the Sustainable Seattle Board of Trustees was "to explore, clarify, and promote sustainable practices in all areas of life." The Brundtland Commission was used to formulate Sustainable Seattle's definition of sustainability, "long-term health and vitality--cultural, economic, environmental and social." This was one of the first times that the word "culture" was used in the definition of sustainable development, and its use demonstrates a uniqueness to the Seattle approach (Krizek and Power 1996, 33-34).

At the same time the Board of Trustees was creating the overall design for sustainability, an Indicator Task Team was working on the formulation of draft indicators that could be used to measure the community’s overall health. Called upon to assist in developing these indicators were scientists, economists, energy experts, planners and engineers. Twenty-nine draft indicators were identified after six months of work.

At this point, Sustainable Seattle was still working with the original group of about 30. It realized that wider input and a broad-based perspective was needed. Toward this end, the group invited business leaders, social activists, government officials, religious groups, educators, environmental and labor groups, and students to participate on a panel to brainstorm indicators for Seattle. Over 150 agreed to participate in the process and, over the next six months, four workshops for the community were held with the goal of reaching consensus on indicators that would best show whether Seattle was moving toward or away from sustainability. With additional input the list of indicators expanded to 99. These 99 were prioritized and reduced to a more workable number of 40. The 40 indicators were then divided into five categories: youth and education, environment, population and resources, economy, and health and economy. The next step taken by the group was the gathering of data for each indicator in order to establish a baseline from which all progress or retrenchment could be measured. The gathering of data proved to be an involved process, taking many months of hard work. For some of the indicators, such as quality of life and neighborliness, team members discovered that clear data did not exist. Sustainable Seattle found that it needed to survey residents to establish a baseline from which to work. For environmental and economic indicators some data existed, but they were not directly applicable to Sustainable Seattle's work. Therefore Sustainable Seattle found the need to access data on the same indicators from a variety of different sources in order to get a more complete picture of the existing situation.

From this list of 40 indicators, the civic panel chose 15 that it felt best provided a picture of community sustainability. The indicator chosen as the best for determining Seattle’s progress toward sustainability was increases or decreases in the population of wild salmon. The civic panel members felt that this indicator was not only effective in demonstrating the interconnection between the economy, environment and social well-being of the community, but was also a well recognized symbol that portrayed Seattle’s uniqueness (Krizek and Power 1996, 34).

The panel also spent a considerable amount of time analyzing and considering how each of the indicators were linked to other indicators, developing "chains of causation." Such a chain, as presented in the 1995 Indicators of Sustainable Community, is as follows:

When child poverty rates are high, more young people are likely to enter into lives of crime. The resulting high crime rates make parents less likely to let their children walk or bike to school and more likely to drive them. The increased driving then results in more leaks and spills of motor oil or radiator fluid, some of which seeps into local streams, thereby affecting salmon and other fish populations (quoted Krizek and Power 1996, 34).

This awareness and understanding of the interconnections and mutual linkages between the social, environmental and economic aspects of their city was an eye-opener. What also emerged through these discussions was a clearer understanding of the power of indicators in measuring the city’s progress toward its goals. Other indicators included the hours of work at the median income level required to support a person’s basic needs, the percentage of children living in poverty, and the number of registered voters.

Sustainable Seattle released a report on the indicators to the city in 1993. These indicators have since been used to track progress toward Seattle’s sustainability goals. The city realizes that this is a long-term process that will take many years to show positive results, but it has made the commitment to "stay the course." Seattle’s efforts, the process designed, and the development and interconnections between indicators have provided a model that other communities have used in the formulation of their measurements indicating progress toward sustainability.

Internet Resources on Sustainable Development

The following Internet locations are provided to help the reader obtain more detailed assistance based on type of organization. Each location has a summary of available resources and is classified based on the type of organization.

Private Organizations

• Hart Environmental Data: Provides assistance in understanding creation of local indicators for sustainable development. Includes access to training materials to help prepare individuals learn how to create indicators.
  

• Sustainable Sources: A resource center for sustainability particularly regarding topics of greenbuildings, sustainable agriculture and responsible planning. Has a bulletin board for posting and sharing information. Is linked to Austin, Texas's sustainable activities.
  

• United States Greenbuilding Council: A coalition of 150 international organizations looking at design issues, particularly the greenbuilding issue. Works through member councils that create resources for members.
  

• Together Foundation: A private foundation assisting nonprofit organizations and intergovernmental organizations on issues of information technology. Serves a special consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council, ECOSOC.
  

• Best Practices for Human Settlement: The Together Foundation, together with the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements, provides this reference of 650 proven solutions for a sustainable world.
  

• Redefining Progress: A public-policy organization which discusses the meaning of progress. Provides a listing of 150 community indicator projects and links to seventy indicator Web sites.
  

Nonprofit Organizations

• Resource Renewal Institute (RRI): A nonprofit organization created to assist in creation of long-term comprehensive strategies for sustainability. Specializes in creation of green plans, which clarify communities' environmental goals and translates them into specific actions.
  

• Sustainable Communities Network (SCN): A site rich with resources for creating sustainable communities efforts. Provides assistance in understanding sustainable communities, resources to accomplish tasks and case studies of other community’s experience.
  

• Sustainable development.org: A resource center for information on sustainable development.
  

• Rocky Mountain Institute: Research center for assisting individuals and private organizations with sustainable development using a market economics and resource efficiency approach. Has developed a method for enacting a sustainable development process.
  

• Foundation for Business and Sustainable Development: Approaches sustainable development from a business perspective including a sustainable business challenge exam.
  

• The Natural Step: An environmental education organization providing resources for building environmental and economic sustainability. Sponsors various events and training sessions.
  

• Worldwatch Institute: A public policy research organization designed to inform policymakers and the public regarding emerging global problems and trends.
  

• Mountain Association for Economic Development (MACED): Created to assist mountain communities in Kentucky and Central Appalachia, MACED is a provider of technical assistance to community-based groups in the region. Its Web page provides assistance and links to other sustainable resources.
  

Universities

• Center for Sustainable Communities: A wonderful site for understanding the concepts of sustainable development. A ten-session tutorial helps the user think through the issues of sustainable development. Also has case studies and a library of materials.
  

• Revisiting Carrying Capacity: An article by William Rees of the University of British Columbia which helps explain the concept of carrying capacity.
  

• Menominee Sustainable Development Institute: Dedicated to examining sustainability issues and applying them to the Menominee model of sustainable development. Located in Wisconsin, the Web site is part of the College of Menominee Nations.
  

• Cornell Work and Environment Initiative: The Cornell Work and Environment Initiative (WEI) was established in 1992 to address environmental issues connected to the worksite, affecting employers, workers and their communities. The program involves management, trade unions, government as well as environmental and community organizations to achieve creative solutions. A wonderful source for information on Eco-Industrial Parks.
  

Local Governments

• Joint Center for Sustainable Communities: An initiative of the National Association of Counties and the U.S. Conference of Mayors, this site provides assistance to local governments regarding sustainable community efforts.
  

• The International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI): An organization of local governments providing assistance in developing local approaches to sustainable development, particularly the application of the Agenda 21 initiative.
  

• Sustainable Seattle: A citizens group advocating for sustainable practices in the region. Provides information on the activities and approaches used within the community.
  

• The following Web sites provide information and resources regarding the sustainable-communities approaches of:
  
  Racine, Wisconsin
  Chattanooga, Tennessee
  Austin, Texas

Federal Government

• Center of Excellence for Sustainable Development: Operated by the U.S. Department of Energy, this site offers an overview of sustainable development, resources on specific sustainable practices and announcements about events and conferences.
  

• United States Environmental Protection Agency: Provides resources regarding environmental statistics, has a sustainable development area, a community based environmental protection approach and the sustainable development challenge grant program.
  

• President’s Council on Sustainable Development: Has resources regarding the progress of sustainable development activities in the United States including information from these various activities. Is sponsoring the National Town Meeting Conference and has information regarding that event.
  

International

• United Nations Environment Programme: Shares resources regarding the environmental activities of the United Nations, including follow-up to the Bruntland Commission and the Agenda 21 Initiative.
  

• The International Institute for Sustainable Development: A wealth of information regarding definitions of sustainable development, moving from principles to practices and the history of sustainable development.
  

• United Nations Centre for Human Settlements: More perspective on the United Nations involvement in sustainable development, including best practices and sustainable communities approach.
  

• The World Bank Group: Working to reduce poverty and improve living standards through sustainable growth and investment in people, the Web site of the World Bank provides information regarding the building of social equity.
  

• Ontario Round Table on the Environment and Economy: Provides access to the Sustainable Communities Resource Package, which is a process resource designed to assist communities with sustainable development.
  

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